.

.

Written by Sulaiman Razvi

Many Hindus assert that their civilisation was so scientifically advanced that nearly every modern discovery originated in ancient India. They further claim that this knowledge was either destroyed by the Mughals or appropriated by Europeans. Whenever a new invention or theory emerges, it is promptly argued that it was already mentioned in Hindu scriptures. Ironically, the practical outcome of such alleged scientific brilliance is now largely confined to attempts to identify medicinal properties in cow urine and cow dung. Despite supposedly inventing everything, these ancient scholars appear to have overlooked the invention of a pen with which to record their discoveries and inventions.

This article examines several scientific errors found in Hindu scriptures, including the Vedas. I have written it to the best of my ability, and it is reasonable to assume that a trained scholar analysing scientific inaccuracies in Hinduism would uncover far more errors than those identified here. The claim that Hinduism is a scientific religion is untenable. The evidence suggests that the rishis merely recorded the limited scientific understanding of their era, which bears little relevance to modern science. In some cases, verses even begin with phrases such as “scientists say,” indicating that the so-called science in the Puranas was borrowed from contemporary thinkers rather than derived from any divine or timeless source.

The scientific content of Hindu scriptures is highly questionable. For instance, Atharva Veda 2.32.3 contains a chant intended to destroy pests, while Atharva Veda 5.23.5 prescribes a chant to eliminate worms. This is presented as scientific knowledge in the Vedas. Similarly, Vishnu Purana, Book 5, Chapter 11, narrates that Indra, angered by the loss of his offerings, caused torrential rain to flood Gokul, after which Krishna lifted Mount Govardhana to protect the cowherds and their cattle. While such accounts may be dismissed as miracles, the following scientific errors cannot be excused under the same justification.

.

.

.

Mountains had Wings/How Clouds were Formed

Hinduism also contains the claim that mountains once had wings and were capable of flight, until Indra cut off their wings. The justification for this act varies across different Puranas. Some accounts state that the mountains’ wings were growing excessively large, prompting Indra to sever them, after which they transformed into clouds. Other versions suggest that the gods feared the flying mountains might crash to the earth and cause widespread destruction, and therefore Indra removed their wings as a preventive measure. According to the same narratives, Mount Mainak alone was spared because it sought refuge with Vayu Devta.

Rig Veda 2.17.5 “By his strength, he fixed the wandering mountains; he directed the downward course of the waters; he upheld the earth, the nurse (of all creatures); and by his craft he stopped the heaven from falling.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

.

Sayana commented on the above verse,

“That Indra, through his might, stabilized the mountains which were moving and flying about here and there. By severing their wings, he made them firm upon the ground—meaning he rendered them immovable. Regarding the waters located within the clouds, he made their downward-flowing action possible. By cleaving the clouds, he caused the waters to fall upon the earth. Furthermore, he supported with strength the Earth, the nourisher of all (viśvadhāyasam). Through his creative wisdom (māyayā) and skillful means, he propped up the heaven (dyām) to prevent it from falling.” Sayana on Rig Veda 2.17.5

Sayana also writes in the commentary on Rig Veda 2.12.2.
“Who tranquilized the incensed mountains: yaḥ parvatān prakuptān aramṇāt = he quited the mountains, going hither and thither, as long as they had wings: Indra cut them off.” (Source)

Valmiki Ramayana 5.1.123-5 “O son! Earlier in the Krita yuga, mountains had wings. With speed equal to that of Garuda and Vayu, they went in all directions. After that when those mountains were thus flying freely, Devas and living creatures together with sages obtained fear in the doubt that those mountains might fall down. Then the angry Devendra who performed a hundred Asvamedha rituals, cut off the wings of thousands of mountains by his weapon vajra then and there.” Tr. K.M.K Murthy (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 8.11.34 “Indra thought: Formerly, when many mountains flying in the sky with wings would fall to the ground and kill people, I cut their wings with this same thunderbolt.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Matsya Purana 125.10-17 “…The clouds Puskarabartaka have been born from the wings (of the mountains). These wings are named Puskara and hold a huge volume of water hence these clouds are known as Puskaravarta. The valiant Indra cut down the wings of the mountains that used to fly at their will and cause ruin and destruction to the rising generation (of the universe)…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Linga Purana I.54.46-48 “…The origin of the third type of clouds is from the wings of mountains chopped off by Indra.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.22.41 “The wings of very powerful mountains that had increased in size and who used to go wherever as they pleased, were chopped off by Indra who wished to secure the welfare of all living beings.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Harivamsa Purana 3.40.19 “Knowing that the mountains are responsible for lack of firmness (immobility) of earth, the destroyer of strongholds (Indra), the lord, after installing the mountains at their own places, cut off their wings with his weapon, the hundred jointed (edged shataparva) Vajra.”

Vayu Purana I.51.38 “The wings of the powerful mountains who could go as per their will and pleasure, had grown very large. Indra cut them off for the (welfare of all) living beings.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Swami Prabhupada writes,
“In many descriptions in Vedic literature it is found that mountains also fly in the sky with wings. When such mountains are dead, they fall to the ground, where they stay as very large dead bodies.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 8.11.12 (Source)

.

.

.

Embryology

According to Hinduism, conception occurs when semen mixes with a woman’s menstrual blood.

Matsya Purana 39.10 “The menstrual flow of a woman suddenly develops conception as soon as it mingles itself with the semen virile of man, through the sap of the flowers of herbs.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Varaha Purana 125.14 “The generative fluid is in the female and the semen is in the male. In the womb they combine to form a being. This is due to my Maya.” Tr. Vekitasubramonia Iyer, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

.

The Following Verses Contain Inaccurate Descriptions of Human Embryonic Development.

Brahmanda Purana 2.3.72.42-47 “…Blood takes its origin from Rasa (a vital fluid constituent of the body) and it is said that the flesh originates from blood. The source of fat is from the flesh. It is defined that the bone originates from the fat. From the bone the pith and marrow take their origin and the origin of Semen is from the marrow. (?) Foetus originated from semen virile through its assimilative rasa bodily fluid. It is there that water is mixed initially (?). This is called the Saumya Rasi. The foetus that is solidified [lit. born of Asman, stone solid] is called the second Rasi. One should know that semen is of the nature of Soma and Menstrual blood is of the nature of fire. These two Evolutes follow Rasa…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.14.17-22 “Then, at the time of conception, Kalana, the embryo at its first stage (in the form of a drop) is formed. In due course the Kalana develops into bubbles. Just as a lump of clay pressed by the wind in the potter’s wheel and shaped by the hands (of the potter) attains multifarious shapes, so also the foetus united with bones and impelled by the wind becomes a human body with proper forms, features and mind. The wind assembles them together. From the wind water is generated. From the water the vital breath is formed and through the vital breath the semen gets developed. Thirty three parts of blood (female contribution) and fourteen parts of the semen mixing together form only half a Pala (two karsas) and is deposited in the womb. The child in the womb is covered by the five vital breaths. From the father’s body he inherits his forms and features.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Matsya Purana 39.14-16 “At the time of menstruation, the air draws the semen virile up, from the inside, after which it magnifies itself there; and then it develops into the embryo and assumes human or animal form (according to the kind of the womb where such development occurs)…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

The following excerpts from the Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Skanda Purana outline Puranic concepts of embryology.

Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Prakriti Khanda 35.121-141 “…As soon as the semen is cast into the womb it is mixed up with blood. If there is excess of blood, the issue takes the form of his mother, and if there is excess of semen, the issue takes his father’s form. The combination of the semen with the blood on even days, i.e. Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday, results in a male issue, otherwise, in a female issue…Semen and blood get united in one night. This union, followed by development from day to day. On the seventh day, the fetus takes the form of a jujube and it takes the form of a pillow in a month, the shape of a lump of flesh without hands and feet in three months and is vested with hands, legs and other members of the body in the fifth month. In the sixth month the body gets animation and consciousness, the animate body then knows the past, but like a bird in a cage, it suffers endless torments. The child in the womb occupies the most unholy place for residence, partakes of the remains of the food eaten by its mother and contemplates Hari in endless tortures. After four months of trouble the child impelled by the wind of the womb is born. But by the illusion of Hari, it forgets the past and oblivious of the quarters, time, space and the necessities…” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)

Skanda Purana V.iii.159.33-53 “…when semen and blood become mixed due to the intercourse of a man and a woman, a creature is born undoubtedly…In the first month it is a phlegmatic mass with the full complement of the body ingredients. In the second month it is a lump of flesh; in the third it gets equipped with sense organs. From the element of ether it derives lightness, subtlety, sound, power of hearing, strength etc. From air the Atman obtains sense of touch, movement, digestive power and roughness. From fiery element the sense of vision, warmth, digestive capacity, colour, and illumination are obtained. It takes from watery elements chillness, fluidity, dampness and softness. From earth element it takes odour, sense of smell, weight and physical form. These are unborn Atman takes up in the third month and beings to throb. If the longing of a pregnant woman is not fulfilled, the foetus becomes defective. It may get ugliness or even death. Hence the woman should be kept pleased. In the fourth month the limbs get firmness. Blood begins to flow in the fifth month. Physical strength is obtained in the sixth month. Complexion is fixed and the nails and hairs grow at that time. In the seventh month, the foetus becomes endowed with consciousness and mind and the body has all the nails and hundreds of hairs. In the eighth month, the outer skin is fixed and the foetus becomes endowed with the power of memory. It is at this time that his sin pursues the foetus and the mother as well. Hence if the birth is premature and the child is born in the eighth month it dies invariably. Either in the ninth or the tenth month the child comes out naturally forced by the powerful winds at the time of delivery…Now it has its full complement of the limbs of the body. There are one hundred vulnerable joints with three hundred Asthas (bones?). There are seven skull pieces in the head created by the Self born Lord himself. O descendant of Bharata, there are three and half crores of hairs on the limbs. There are seventy two thousand Nadis (nerve vessels) fanning out.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Both of these passages contradict each other. Hinduism holds that a woman becomes pregnant when semen mixes with her menstrual blood. However, semen contains millions of sperm, and pregnancy occurs only when a single sperm fertilises the female egg, not when semen as a whole mixes with blood. Every Purana that discusses embryology states that pregnancy occurs through the mixing of blood and semen, which is a clear scientific error. Furthermore, a foetus does not assume the form of a jujube within a week. The verse from the Brahma Vaivarta Purana claims that the foetus becomes a lump of flesh without hands and feet in three months and acquires hands and legs in the fifth month. This is incorrect, as limb development begins at around eight weeks (two months), and by the fourteenth week (three and a half months), the lower limbs are well developed. This is supported by Mayo Clinic articles, Link 1 and Link 2.

In an article published by babycenter.com, images of foetal development are shown week by week, clearly contradicting the Puranic timeline.

The text further states that the baby “partakes of the remains of the food eaten by its mother.” In reality, a foetus does not consume food in the womb but receives nutrients through the umbilical cord. Moving on to the Skanda Purana, it claims that the foetus gains the power of hearing in the third month. In contrast, scientific evidence shows that hearing begins around the eighteenth week (four and a half months), as noted in a Mayo Clinic article. The Skanda Purana also asserts that the foetus gains the ability to move and develops digestive power in the third month, whereas these developments occur after the fourth month, according to Mayo Clinic.

The Skanda Purana further claims that blood begins to flow in the fifth month. In reality, blood circulation begins around the sixth week (one and a half month), and by the seventeenth week (four months and one week), the heart pumps approximately 100 pints of blood per day, as referenced by Mayo Clinic and Parents.com. It also states that hair and nails develop in the sixth month and are fully formed by the seventh month. Scientifically, fingernails begin forming at ten weeks (two months and two weeks), toenails appear at fourteen to fifteen weeks (around three and a half months), and further develop by the seventeenth week (four months and one week), as noted in Mayo Clinic link 1, link 2 and UNSW.edu.au. Hair growth begins around the twenty-second week (five months and two weeks) and a full head of hair may be present by the thirtieth week (seven months and two weeks), according to Mayo Clinic, link 1 & link 2.

The Skanda Purana is partially correct regarding bones but remains imprecise. A newborn baby has approximately 270 to 350 bones. It states that the baby’s skull consists of seven pieces, whereas medically, the skull is composed of five main bones: two frontal bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone. These are connected by fibrous sutures that allow movement during childbirth and brain growth, as explained by Stanford Children’s Health & Wikipedia.

 

Now let’s evaluate Embryology mentioned in Padma and Bhagavad Puranas.

Padma Purana II.66.22-38 …The semen with the blood (of the woman) would be (turned into) a foetus in a day. Then within five nights bubbles would be formed in the foetus. It takes the form of flesh in the five forms; neck, head, shoulder (s), spine and belly; so also hands and feet, the two sides, waists, and (the other parts of) the body; the limbs are produced one by one within two months. After three months, hundreds of sharp joints are produced (i.e. formed). Fingers etc. are produced (i.e. are formed) one by one in four months. After five months mouth, nose and ears are produced (i.e. formed). Within six months, the row of teeth, so also tongue and nails are formed, so also cavities in the ears are formed. So also are formed anus, penis, organ of generation and the male organ of generation. The joints which (are present) in the limbs, are formed within seven months. In the eight month the head with the entire body with limbs and with each limb clearly separated is formed. He is complete and endowed with five. Due to the power of the food of (i.e. eaten by) the mother and by the tastes of six kinds, fixed in the umbilical cord (i.e. the foetus) grows day by day.” Tr. N.A Deshpande (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 3.31.2-5 “On the first night, the sperm and ovum mix, and on the fifth night the mixture ferments into a bubble. On the tenth night it develops into a form like a plum, and after that, it gradually turns into a lump of flesh or an egg, as the case may be. In the course of a month, a head is formed, and at the end of two months the hands, feet and other limbs take shape. By the end of three months, the nails, fingers, toes, body hair, bones and skin appear, as do the organ of generation and the other apertures in the body, namely the eyes, nostrils, ears, mouth and anus. Within four months from the date of conception, the seven essential ingredients of the body, namely chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow and semen, come into existence. At the end of five months, hunger and thirst make themselves felt, and at the end of six months, the fetus, enclosed by the amnion, begins to move on the right side of the abdomen. Deriving its nutrition from the food and drink taken by the mother, the fetus grows and remains in that abominable residence of stools and urine, which is the breeding place of all kinds of worms.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

The Srimad Bhagavatam states that the head is formed within one month, whereas medical evidence shows that head development occurs around the seventh week (one month and three weeks), as noted in a Mayo Clinic article.

It further claims that nails appear by the end of the third month. In reality, a baby’s fingernails begin forming at around ten weeks (two months and two weeks), toenails appear at fourteen to fifteen weeks (approximately three and a half months), and further development continues into the seventeenth week (four months and one week), as referenced in Mayo Clinic link 1, link 2. The Srimad Bhagavatam also states that fingers, nostrils, toes, and reproductive organs appear in the third month. However, these developments occur much earlier: fingers begin forming at the eighth week (two months), nostrils form around the seventh to eighth week, toes develop at the ninth week (two months and one week), and genitals develop around the eleventh week (two months and three weeks), as stated in a Mayo Clinic article.

Now let us evaluate the Padma Purana. The Padma Purana claims that fingers are formed in the fourth month, which contradicts the Srimad Bhagavatam, where this development is placed in the third month. Both claims are inaccurate, as this process occurs much earlier, as already referenced above. The Padma Purana further states that the nose and ears are produced after five months. In contrast, ears begin developing much earlier, around the eighth week (two months), and the baby may begin to hear by the eighteenth week (four months and two weeks), as referenced in Link 1 and Link 2.. The nose is formed in the second month, around the eighth week, according to Mayo Clinic.

The Padma Purana also claims that nails are formed in the sixth month, whereas fingernails begin forming at around ten weeks (two months and two weeks), toenails appear at fourteen to fifteen weeks, and further development occurs by the seventeenth week (four months and one week), as referenced in Mayo Clinic link 1, link 2 and UNSW.edu.au.

Additionally, the Padma Purana states that reproductive organs are formed in the sixth month, which directly contradicts the Srimad Bhagavatam, where this development is placed in the third month. Both claims are incorrect, as the organs of generation begin developing around the eleventh week (two months and three weeks), as stated in a Mayo Clinic article.

Although these facts were verified using several sources, Mayo Clinic has been cited repeatedly due to its reliability. Readers may consult Wikipedia for further information about Mayo Clinic. The following section continues the discussion on embryology in Hinduism.

 

.

.

Bones Originate from Fat & Semen Originate from Marrow

.

Brahma Purana 70.49 “Fat is produced from flesh; bone is produced from fat; marrow is generated from bone and semen is produced from marrow.” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Brahmanda Purana 3.72.44 “The source of fat is from the flesh. It is defined that the bone originates from the fat. From the bone the pith and marrow take their origin and the origin of Semen is from the marrow.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Harivamsa Purana 1.40.48-56 “The distillate of various foods, rasa, vital-juice, produces blood, and flesh is produced from that blood; fat comes from flesh and bones from that fat; bones generate marrow and marrow generates seminal fluid, from which pregnancy occurs; hence, rasa, vital-fluid is substratum of all… Water is the primary principle of that rasa, vital-fluid, and this belongs to the soma, the moon, or, the nectarean principle of the moon, in the somatology – Greek – soma -atos ‘body’ and its formation… heat resides in the second half, say in menstrual blood… hence, the being of living beings is a compound of coolness and heatedness of the moon and fire. Thus the essence of all juice, the seminal fluid, is created by an excess of phlegm; blood is created by an excess billious matter. The seat of phlegm is the heart and the seat of bile is the navel. The heart, which is in the body, is known as the seat of the mind. The fire exists behind the cavity of the navel – jaThara agni – is none other than huta-ashana, the devourer of oblations, whose life-spirit is madhu-sUdana. Mind is known as prajApati, the phlegm as soma and the bile as agni. Thus the whole world is a commixture of heat and cold. Where a conception takes place, as is the formation of a cloud, the air enters there accompanied by the Absolute… It then creates the various limbs and nourishes them. Inside the body the vital air divides itself into five kinds of airs, namely prANa, apAna, samAna, samAna and vyAna, and gradually assumes proportions.” Tr. Desiraju Hanumant Rao

Vayu Purana II.35.45-46 “From flesh fat is produced and bone is developed from fat. Pith and marrow are developed from bone and semen virile is generated from marrow; foetus is developed from semen through assimilative activity of Rasa bodily fluid (or through the activity rooted in sexual pleasure).” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

Conceiving pregnancy at will without intercourse

Hinduism claims that sexual intercourse was not required for conception in ancient times, asserting that offspring were produced solely through the force of will, and that in later yugas women conceived simply through physical touch.

Mahabharata 12.207.38-40 “…Sexual congress, O chief of the Bharatas, was then not necessary for perpetuating the species. In those days offspring were begotten by flat of the will. In the age that followed, viz., Treta, children were begotten by touch alone. The people of that age even, O monarch, were above the necessity of sexual congress. It was in the next age, viz., Dwapara, that the practice of sexual congress originated, O king, to prevail among men. In the Kali age, O monarch, men have come to marry and live in pairs…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Vayu Purana II.2.45 “The creation of the earlier ones was due to thought, sight, and touch. Thenceforth, the subjects in this world were born of sexual intercourse.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, edited by G.P. Bhatt (Source)

Seer Urva is said to have created a son named Aurva with his mental ability.

Matsya Purana 175.43-44 “…If one has the seed of asceticism within him, he can create a son from his mind…The ascetics ought to beget progeny out of the embryo created by their mind, and your address to me is bereft of dharma, and is like the speech of those who are not good. By the power of my innerself, I shall create a son, without the help of a woman, after illumining my mind with the glory of asceticism. I shall create such a son out of my soul, who would be ready to consume the creation. Afterwards the sage Urva, absorbed in his asceticism, throwing his thighs into the fire rubbed them with a kusu grass. Then the son in the form of Fire, desirous of consuming the universe, was produced from his thigh, by its own force without the help of any firewood. In such a way the fearful Aurva was begotten from the thigh of the seer Urva.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

.

 .

Miraculous Conception Through Ingestion and Non-Sexual Means in Hindu Scriptures

Hinduism also asserts that a woman can become pregnant by drinking semen, and it even claims that animals are capable of conceiving after ingesting human semen.

Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Brahma Kanda 20.33-46 “…At that time, Menaka was passing by that way, At the sight of her thigh and breast the semen of the saint was discharged. Thereupon the woman Kalavati drank it cheerfully, went to her husband, bowed to him and told him everything about, her pregnancy…” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)

Varaha Purana 95.20-21 “Finding the water fragrant (with it), Mahismati told her friends that she would drink it. She then drank the water containing the emission of the sage. As a result she conceived and in due time brought forth, a son named Mahisa, intelligent and valiant.” Tr. Venkitaasubramonia Iyer, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Skanda Purana III.iii.19.64 The semen virile of the royal sage Yupaketu fell into water. It is said that a harlot drank that water together with the semen and became pregnant” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

The following verse depicts the birth of a girl from the sweat of Uma during her intimate play with Rudra.

Skanda Purana V.iii.5.27-37 “…O excellent king, Paramesthin Rudra sported about with Uma in the vast expanse of sea-like water. A splendid girl was born out of the sweat of Uma due to her delight. When Sarva’s chest pressed against the breasts of Uma, a great girl of lotus-like eyes issued forth from the sweat…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

The following passage narrates a miraculous male pregnancy, in which King Yuvanaswa conceives and gives birth after drinking consecrated water.

Vishnu Purana 4.2.13-17 “Yuvanaswa had no son, at which he was deeply grieved. Whilst residing in the vicinage of the holy Munis, he inspired them with pity for his childless condition, and they instituted a religious rite to procure him progeny. One night during its performance the sages having placed a vessel of consecrated water upon the altar had retired to repose. It was past midnight, when the king awoke, exceedingly thirsty; and unwilling to disturb any of the holy inmates of the dwelling, he looked about for something to drink. In his search he came to the water in the jar, which had been sanctified and endowed with prolific efficacy by sacred texts, and he drank it. When the Munis rose, and found that the water had been drunk, they inquired who had taken it, and said, “The queen that has drunk this water shall give birth to a mighty and valiant son.” “It was I,” exclaimed the Raja, “who unwittingly drank the water!” and accordingly in the belly of Yuvanaswa was conceived a child, and it grew, and in due time it ripped open the right side of the Raja, and was born, and the Raja, did not die…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

.

.

Instances in Hindu scriptures depicting animal conception through ingestion of human semen.

Skanda Purana III.iii.19.65 “After drinking the semen of Sage Vibhandaka together with water, a female deer became pregnant and gave birth to Rsyasrnga.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Mahabharata 1.3.17 “…The Rishi thus addressed, answered Janamejaya, ‘O Janamejaya, this my son, deep in ascetic devotions, accomplished in the study of the Vedas, and endued with the full force of my asceticism, is born of (the womb of) a she-snake that had drunk my vital fluid…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Devi Bhagavatam 5.2.27-31 “…Vyasa said :– O king! Hearing thus the sweet words of Fire, Rambha quitted the hold of his hairs and said :– O Lord of the Devas! If thou art pleased, grant my desired boon that a son be born unto me, who will destroy the forces of my enemy and who will conquer the three worlds. And that son be invincible in every way by the Devas, Danavas and men, very powerful, assuming forms at will, and respected by all. The Fire [Agni] said :– O highly Fortunate! You will get your son, as you desire; therefore desist now from your attempting suicide. O highly fortunate Rambha! With any female of whichever species, you will co-habit, you will get a son, more powerful than you; there is no doubt in this. Vyasa said :– O king! Hearing thus the sweet words of the Fire as desired, Rambha, the chief of the Danavas, went, surrounded by Yaksas, to a beautiful place, adorned with picturesque sceneries; when one lovely she-buffalo, who was very maddened with passion, fell to the sight of Rambha. And he desired to have sexual intercourse with her, in preference to other women. The she-buffallo, too, gladly yielded to his purpose and Rambha had sexual intercourse with her, impelled as it were by the destiny. The she-buffalo became pregnant with his semen virile…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

.

.

.

Seven layers of the Skin

There are three layers of the skin, 1) Epidermis, 2) Dermis and 3) Hypodermis. But according to Agni Purana there are seven layers of the skin,

Agni Purana 350.40-45 “The external layers of the skin, together with the one that contains blood, are seven in number.” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)

.

.

.

Shape of the Earth

.

Four-Cornered

Earth according to Vedas is four cornered,

Rig Veda 10.58.3 “Thy spirit, that went far away, away to the four cornered earth…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Hindu apologists argue that the verse refers to the four directions rather than literal corners, and therefore does not imply that the Earth is flat. There are four directions regardless of whether the Earth is conceived as a four-cornered plane, a flat disc, or a globe, one does not need a “cornered” earth to have directions, making the specific use of the word Chaturbhrsti superfluous unless it was intended to describe a physical shape. However, the verse explicitly describes the Earth as “four-cornered,” which indicates a statement about form rather than orientation. If the intention were merely to denote directions, the text could have used a term meaning “directions” instead of “corners.”

The Satapatha Brahmana explicitly describes the Earth as four cornered. This repeated characterization strengthens the interpretation that the relevant Rig Veda verse concerns the Earth’s shape rather than its cardinal directions. The consistency of this imagery across texts indicates a pre scientific cosmological conception, and the Satapatha Brahmana reiterates the same idea without ambiguity.

Satapatha Brahman 6.1.2.29 “…Now this earth is four-cornered, for the quarters are her corners: hence the bricks are four-cornered; for all the bricks are after the manner of this earth.” Tr. Juluis Eggeling (Source)

The Ramayana also endorses the concept of a four-cornered Earth,

Valmiki Ramayana 5.9.26 “the floor was covered by a carpet, wide and four-cornered like the earth…” Tr. Hari Prasad Shastri (Source)

Hari Prasad Shastri writes in the footnotes,

The Ramayana of Valmiki, Translated by Hari Prasad Shastri, Shanti Sadan 29 Chepstow Villas, London, W.II. 1952. Printed in Great Britain at the Burgleigh Press, Lewins Mead, Bristol.

Another translation,

Valmiki Ramayana 5.9.26 “…containing spacious and parti-colored woolen clothes bearing the marks of the Earth; extensive as the Earth is, with kingdoms and dwellings…” Tr. Manmath Nath Dutt (Source)

M.N. Dutt writes in the footnotes,

The Ramayanna, Edited and Published by Manmatha Nath Dutt, Rector, Keshub Academu. Printed by Girish Chanda Chackravarti, Deva Press, 65/2, Beadon Street, Calcutta. 1892.

 

Following is Hindi translation of Valmiki Ramayana 5.9.26 by Dwaraka Prasad Sharma,

.

Tilaka Acharya, in his commentary on Valmiki Ramayana, Sundara Kanda 5.9.25, states.

अत्युच्चैः पक्षैरिवात्युच्चैः स्तम्भैर्दिवं संप्रस्थितामिवेत्युत्प्रेक्षात्र ।
कुथया विशालविचित्रकम्भलास्तरणेन । पृथिवीलक्षणं चतुरस्त्रत्वम् ।। 5.9.25 ।।

“…The characteristic of the Earth is four-corneredness (squareness).” (Source)

There is no Sanskrit word in the Valmiki Ramayana that can be directly translated as “four cornered.” However, the term prithvi lakshanam literally means “the characteristics of the Earth.” This expression describes the Earth’s shape as quadrangular. Several translators and commentators have interpreted it as describing the Earth’s shape. This reading is further supported by Tilaka’s commentary, which explicitly uses the word चतुरस्त्र, meaning quadrangular. Sanskrit dictionaries may be consulted to verify this meaning, link 1, link 2.

Rig Veda 8.6.5 “His might is manifest, for Indra folds and unfolds both heaven and earth, as (one spreads or rolls up) a skin.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Rig Veda 6.8.3 “Wonderful Mitra propped the heaven and earth apart, and covered and concealed the darkness with his light. He made the two bowls part asunder like two skins. Vaiśvānara put forth all his creative power.” Tr. Ralph T.H. Griffith (Source)

Sayana writes.

“Agni Vaiśvānara, who functions as a friend to all and is a magnificent source of wonder, propped up the two worlds of Heaven and Earth; he specifically stabilized them. The implication is that he established them in their respective domains to ensure they do not collapse downward. Similarly, through his radiance, he rendered the prevailing darkness hidden and vanished. Furthermore, just as a butcher spreads out two hides for the purpose of drying, he unrolled the two cosmic sustainers, Heaven and Earth, making them expansive. In short, this Agni Vaiśvānara sustains all virile and creative potency.” Sayana on Rig Veda 6.8.3

The simile “as one spreads or rolls up a skin” is especially revealing. A skin can be folded, unfolded, stretched, or rolled because it is flat, flexible, and bounded. Applying this imagery to heaven and earth suggests that they are conceived not as vast, spherical bodies suspended in space, but as layered or planar surfaces that can be expanded and contracted at will.

The Vedas state that the Earth is stretched or spread out. Such expressions can be understood as describing the vastness of the Earth rather than its literal shape. However, Hindus often cite similar verses from Quran polemically, which raises the question of how they would respond when the same interpretive standard is applied to their own scriptures.

Rig Veda 3.6.5 “Great are the deeds of thee, the Great, O Agni: thou by thy power hast spread out earth and heaven.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

.

.

Lotus-Shaped

Some Puranas describe the Earth as lotus-shaped. This expression can be interpreted in two ways: either the Earth itself is imagined as having a lotus-like form, or the landmass upon the Earth is described in that manner. In several passages, it is further described as being shaped like a lotus leaf, which is flat and circular. If this description refers to the landmass rather than the Earth as a whole, it would still constitute a scientific error, as the landmass (continents) on Earth does not resemble a lotus shape.

Vishnu Purana 2.12.36 “From the waters, which are the body of Vishnu, was produced the lotus shaped earth, with its seas and mountains.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Vayu Purana I.34.44 “The lotus that was fashioned by Visnu grew from his umbilicus. The earth along with the forests and the trees was evolved in the shape of a lotus.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

The Srimad Bhagavatam 5.16.5 describes the planetary system, or the Earth itself, as lotus-shaped, and depicts Jambudvipa, which is believed to be the region inhabited by humans, as being shaped like a lotus leaf.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.16.5 “The planetary system known as Bhū-maṇḍala resembles a lotus flower, and its seven islands resemble the whorl of that flower. The length and breadth of the island known as Jambūdvīpa, which is situated in the middle of the whorl, are one million yojanas [eight million miles]. Jambūdvīpa is round like the leaf of a lotus flower.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Markandeya Purana also mention Earth as a lotus.

.

.

Varaha and the shape of the Earth

Padma Purana 1.19.166-171 “…O you creator of the worlds, you are the protector and creator of us and (also) of the worlds. This flat world will be elevated by your favour…” Tr. N.A. Deshpande (Source)

The above verse refers to Vishnu’s boar incarnation, Varaha, lifting the “flat world.” Almost all ancient Hindu temples depict Varaha holding the personified Earth, Bhudevi, rather than a flat or spherical globe. In recent times, some Hindus have falsely presented twenty-first-century idols of Varaha as ancient, claiming that these are ancient idols of Varaha depict him lifting a spherical Earth. Such claims have been debunked. In contrast, numerous medieval depictions clearly show Varaha lifting a flat Earth.

Although many such images date from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, only a few are reproduced here. The first two images are of an idol of Varaha holding a flat Earth on his tusks at the Adi Varaha Temple in Mathura. While the exact date of this idol is unknown, the temple is believed to be the oldest Varaha shrine and is mentioned in the Varaha Purana, Chapter 163, which states that the idol was created by Sage Kapila.

Idol of Varaha at Adi Varaha Temple, Mathura.

.

Varaha painting by Mahesh of Chamba, Dated 1750–75
Source Britanica.com

.

Varaha with Bhu, gouache on paper
Perhaps from Chamba, Pahari region, north India Around AD 1740
Source: BritishMuseum.com

.

.

Varaha holding up the flat earth. Created in late 17^th century, Acquired by British Museum in 1974.
Source: BritishMuseum.org

.

Varaha Rescuing the Earth, page from an illustrated Dasavatara series. Dates ca. 1730-1740
Source: BrooklynMuseum.org

.

Purana says that Vishnu (Varaha) flattened the Earth.

Padma Purana 1.3.55 “The beginningless supreme being, then having flattened the earth, piled the mountains on it according to (its) divisions.” Tr. N.A. Deshpande (Source)

Vishnu Purana 1.4.45-48 “The supreme being thus eulogized, upholding the earth, raised it quickly, and placed it on the summit of the ocean, where it floats like a mighty vessel, and from its expansive surface does not sink beneath the waters. Then, having levelled the earth, the great eternal deity divided it into portions, by mountains…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Kurma Purana I.6.25 “He levelled the earth and gathered the mountains together on it…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Shiva Purana VayaviyaSamhita 7, Section I, chapter 11, verses 34-35; Vayu Purana I.6.27 “The Boar brought the earth to its own place. It then assumed his natural form and fixed it there. He levelled the earth, fixed the mountains and set up the four worlds on the earth as before.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)

.

Flat Circular Disc Shaped Earth

.

Some modern Hindu apologists translate terms such as gau and bhu-mandala as “globe,” which is misleading. In doing so, they impose modern meanings onto ancient texts. Srimad Bhagavatam 3.33.3 refers to the Gopis dancing in a circle (Gopi mandala), while Srimad Bhagavatam 3.11.40 describes the universe as an egg (Anda). However, the broader consensus of Hindu texts does not describe the Earth itself as egg shaped or spherical. Instead, the Earth is repeatedly described as a mandala, which in this context denotes a flat circular form rather than a globe.

According to Puranas themselves, the Earth is described as four-cornered, lotus-shaped, or shaped like a lotus leaf. Taken together, these descriptions consistently emphasise the idea of the Earth as a flat, circular disc rather than a spherical body.

The Puranas describe the Earth as an enormous flat disc. At its centre stands Mount Meru, around which the Sun, Moon, and stars revolve. Encircling Mount Meru are continents or regions known as Dvipas (Islands), each Dvipa being separated from the next by an ocean and named after the great trees said to grow on their shores opposite Meru. Some Puranas describe the world as consisting of Saptadvipas, while others mention Chaturdvipas, including Jambudvipa, which is regarded as the inhabited region.

Below the Earth are said to be seven levels of hell, while above it lies heaven, and the Earth itself is described as resting upon waters. This is the cosmographical model presented in Hindu scriptures. Although individual verses may appear unclear when read in isolation, the overall description becomes evident when the Puranic worldview is considered as a whole. If one searches for Jambudvipa or attempts to visualise the Earth as described in the Puranas, the resulting model is that of a flat, circular Earth rather than a globe.

.

Vishnu Purana 2.2.4-36 “PARÁŚARA.–You shall hear, Maitreya, a brief account of the earth from me: a full detail I could not give you in a century. The seven great insular continents are Jambu, Plaksha, Sálmali, Kuśa, Krauncha, Śáka, and Pushkara: and they are surrounded severally by seven great seas; the sea of salt water (Lavańa), of sugar-cane juice (Ikshu), of wine (Surá), of clarified butter (Sarpi), of curds (Dadhi), of milk (Dugdha), and of fresh water (Jala). Jambu-dwípa is in the centre of all these: and in the centre of this continent is the golden mountain Meru…The capital of Brahma is enclosed by the river Ganges, which, issuing from the foot of Vishńu, and washing the lunar orb, falls here from the skies…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

.

Mount Meru is in centre of the Earth

Agni Purana 212.33-35 “…Obeisance to the mount Meru, the representative of Vishnu on earth. Salutation unto the mountain which forms the main stay of the earth. I make obeisance to the mountain situate at the centre of the earth…” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)

Padma Purana VII.2.10-17 “…At the centre of the earth he produced the great mountain (viz. Meru) with jewelled peaks…” Tr. N.A. Deshpande (Source)

Vishnu Purana 2.4.87-93 “…In this manner the seven island continents are encompassed successively by the seven oceans, and each ocean and continent is respectively of twice the extent of that which precedes it…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

The following verses indicate that Mount Meru is located at the centre of the Earth, with land surrounding it and separated by concentric oceans.

Vayu Purana I.34.37 “From the unmanifest the great lotus of the earth is evolved. Its pericarp is the four-cornered Meru that is five times great.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.34.46 “The four famous great continents are stationed on the petals. The powerful Meru is stationed on the pericarp.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Harivamsha Purana 3.34.4 “Containing the earth within four boundaries, the Lord created the great ocean. At the centre of the earth, the golden mountain, meru was installed.” Tr. Desiraju Hanumanta Rao

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.13-16 “…The extent of the earth towards all the sides (quarters) from the middle of the Meru is remembered as one crore and eightynine lakhs (of Yojanas)…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

Seven Dvipas are surrounded by seven Oceans

Brahma Purana 17.28-29 “O brahmins, this Jambūdvīpa, which consists of nine subcontinents and which extends to a hundred thousand Yojanas has been mentioned by me. O brahmins, the briny sea that extends to a hundred thousand Yojanas and that is like a bangle in shape encircles the Jambūdvīpa externally.” Tr. G.P. Bhatt (Source)

Matsya Purana 123.27-28 “Thus the seven dvipas are surrounded by the seven oceans…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.15.12-13 “Jambudvipa is immense and glorious with huge zones all round. It is encircled by nine worlds that evolve a number of living beings. It is surrounded on all sides by the briny sea the extent of which is equal to that of Jambudvipa itself.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.34.56 “That Meru, the purifier of living beings, is encircled by worlds. Four islands are established on its different sides.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana I.46.1 “The Earth consists of seven continents. It is full of rivers and mountains. It is surrounded by seven oceans all round and embellished by them.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Mahabharata 6.6.18-21 “Besides Meru are situated, O lord, these four islands, viz., Bhadraswa, and Ketumala, and Jamvudwipa otherwise called Bharata, and Uttar-Kuru which is the abode of persons who have achieved the merit of righteousness. The bird Sumukha, the son of Suparna, beholding that all the birds on Meru were of golden plumage, reflected that he should leave that mountain inasmuch as there was no difference between the good, middling, and bad birds. The foremost of luminaries, the sun, always circumambulates Meru” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

.

.

Seven Oceans created by the impression of King Priyavrata’s chariot’s wheel

The following verses also indicate that the earth is shaped like a flat circular disc.

Devi Bhagavatam 8.4.1-28 “Once on an occasion, the King observed that when the sun appeared on the horizon and got up, one part of the earth was illumined and the remaining part was enveloped in darkness. Seeing this discrepancy, he thought over for a long time and exclaimed, “What! Will the Darkness be seen in my kingdom, while I am reigning? This can never be. I will stop this by my Yogic powers.” Thus thinking, the King Priyavrata mounted on a luminous chariot, as big as the Sun, to illumine the whole world and circumambulated round the earth seven times. Whatever portion of the earth was trodden by the wheel on each occasion, became an ocean. Thus the seven oceans had their origins. And the portion of the earth, that was included within the ruts, became the seven islands (Dvîpas).” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.1.31 “When Priyavrata drove his chariot behind the sun, the rims of his chariot wheels created impressions that later became seven oceans, dividing the planetary system known as Bhū-maṇḍala into seven islands.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

.

.

.

Earth is Immovable

Several Puranas contain entire chapters devoted to the movements of celestial bodies. They describe the revolutions of planets such as Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, as well as luminaries like the Sun and Moon. However, these texts nowhere mention the movement of the Earth itself. This omission strongly suggests that, according to the Puranic worldview, the Earth was regarded as stationary while all other celestial bodies revolved around it. Moreover, Hindu scriptures describe the Earth as Achala, a term commonly translated as immovable.

Brahmanda Purana 2.3.52.8 “The earth overwhelmed by the ocean began to quake though its name is Acala (immovable). There was a break and hindrance in the penance and abstract meditation of the ascetics.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Mahabharata, Anushasana Parva 12, Section 62, verse 2 “Bhishma said, ‘Of all kinds of gifts, the gift of earth has been said to be the first (in point of merit). Earth is immovable and indestructible…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Vamana Purana 8.26 “I bow down to the Worshipful Lord Visnu who raised the immovable earth with one single tusk, who sustains everything, and who sleeps absorbing the entire universe in Him.” Tr. Ananada Swarup Gupta (Source)

Mahabharata 13.62.2 “…Earth is immovable and indestructible…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli

Mahabharata 5.76.7-8 “Behold, O Krishna, these the firmament and the earth which are immovable, immense, and infinite, and which are the refuge of, and in which are born these countless creatures.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Vayu Purana I.35.11; Linga Purana I.49.25b-27 “Meru has four great ranges (legs) in all the four quarters. Held by them, the earth with her seven continents does not move.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Krishna Janma Khanda 87.99-104 …Vrinda, so saying, remained there like the immoveable earth….” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)

.

Rig Veda 3.30.4 “You alone casting down the firmly-footed (asuras) proceed, destroying the Vṛtras, and obedient to your command the heaven and earth and the mountains stood as if immoveable.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

.

Sayana commented on this verse as follows.

“…Furthermore, for the sake of the sacred ordinance, command, or ritual action of one endowed with such immense power as yourself, the heaven, the earth, and the mountains stand as if ‘fixed’ (nimiteva)—meaning they remain immobile, as if driven into the ground, staying in accordance with your will.” Sayana on Rig Veda 3.30.4

.

Rig Veda 2.12.2 “He, who fixed firm the moving earth; who tranquilized the incensed mountains; who spread the spacious firmament; who consolidated the heaven; he, men, is Indra.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Sayana commented on this verse.

“O people! He is Indra, who made firm (adṛṃhat) the quaking and moving Earth through gravel and other stabilizers. He is the one who restrained (aramṇāt) the provoked mountains that were moving with wings here and there, and established them each in their proper place. The term aramṇāt is derived from the root ram (to rest). He is the one who measured out (vimame) the vast atmosphere and propped up (astabhnāt) the heaven, making it secure. He alone is Indra; I am not he.” Sayana on Rig Veda 2.12.2

.

.

Atharva Veda 6.77.1 “The heavens have stood, the earth has stood, all creatures have stood. The mountains have stood upon their foundation, the horses in the stable I have caused to stand.” Tr. Maurice Bloomfield (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Kshemkaran Trivedi.

.

Atharva Veda 6.44.1 “The heavens have stood still, the earth has stood still, all creatures have stood still. The trees that sleep erect have stood still: may this disease of thine stand still!” Tr. Maurice Bloomfield (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Kshemkarandas Trivedi.

Some apologists argue that the word “Asthat” means “steady” rather than “fixed” or “standing still.” However, Atharva Veda 6.44.1 is a prayer intended to arrest a malady, and it employs a clear analogy. It states that just as the Earth stands still, trees stand still, and the world stands still, so too should the disease be made to stand still. If one accepts the apologetic definition of “steady,” the sense becomes awkward, even illogical, since it would amount to saying, “Let this malady stand firm,” which does not fit the context of stopping or arresting an affliction. Moreover, if the verse were merely about firmness, the reference to trees would be unnecessary, as trees visibly sway with gusts of wind. They are described as “standing” because they remain fixed in one place. By comparing the Earth to trees in this way, the verse strongly suggests that the Earth itself is understood as motionless in the Vedic worldview. Swami Karpatri Maharaj too supported my view on this Atharva Veda verse, he writes.

.“Some people, in order to propound the theory of the Earth’s rotation, derive the word ‘Go’ as ‘Gacchati iti Gauh‘, meaning that this Earth moves, but this derivation of theirs goes against many Vedic mantras. Phrases such as ‘Asthat Prithvi’ from the Atharvaveda mantras and a hymn of the Rigveda also establish only the stability of the Earth. There is not a single mantra among them in which the rotation of the Earth is mentioned.” Swami Karpatri, Vedarth Parijat, page 1299-1300, vol 2.

.

Rig Veda 10.89.4, Sam Veda 4.1.5.8 “I will send forth my songs in flow unceasing, like water from the ocean’s depth, to Indra. Who to his car on both its sides securely hath fixed the earth and heaven as with an axle.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

.

Yajur Veda 5.16 “…Both these worlds, Vishnu, hast thou stayed asunder, and firmly fixed the earth with pegs around it.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Swami Karpatri Maharaj.

.Many apologists argue that the Vedas do not state that the Earth is fixed, but merely speak of its stability. However, a close reading shows that in many verses the Vedas explicitly describe the Earth as fixed or immovable, while there is not a single verse that clearly affirms the motion of the Earth. This very point was discussed by the renowned Hindu scholar Swami Karpatri in his writings, where he addressed the traditional understanding of these passages rather than reinterpreting them to suit modern ideas.

“Numerous mantras within the hymns of the Rigveda explicitly propagate the immobility of the earth. There is not a single mantra among them that suggests the earth is in a state of motion or rotation (bhraman).

Based on the Atharvaveda mantra ‘varshena bhumih: prithvi vrtavrta’, some proponents argue that the earth completes its revolution within a year. They claim that the theory of planetary motion is sanctioned by the Vedas; however, their assertion is inherently flawed because they have failed to grasp the authentic meaning of the mantra. The true significance of the mantra is as follows: May this earth—where nights and days of dark and reddish hues exist, and which is periodically covered by rain—perpetually fulfill our cherished desires through its imaginative capacity.

In this context, the feminine word ‘varsha’ denotes the rainy season, whereas the neuter ‘varsha’ refers to rainfall itself. This distinction can be verified in the Amarakosha. Furthermore, the Nirukta states that rain serves to cover or envelop the earth. Consequently, the interpretation that this earth repeatedly rotates on its axis within the span of a year is entirely erroneous. Based on various logical arguments and numerous scriptural testimonies (shrutivachanas), it is established that the theory of a mobile earth is a mere delusion.” Swami Karpatri Maharaj, Vedarth Parijata, page number 1300

.

.

.

Sun revolves around the Earth

.

Mahabharata 6.6.7-16 “…This (the land where we are) is in the Varsha that is called after Bharata…Besides Meru are situated, O lord, these four islands, viz., Bhadraswa, and Ketumala, and Jamvudwipa otherwise called Bharata, and Uttar-Kuru…The foremost of luminaries, the sun, always circumambulates Meru, as also the moon with (his) attendant constellation, and the Wind-god too…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Mount Meru is in the centre of the world according to Puranic cosmology.

Brahmanda Purana 1.2.21.87-88 “Everyday the sun traverses those (zones) in due order. Just as the outer rim of the potter’s wheel comes back quickly (i.e. revolves), so also the sun functions quickly during his Souther transit. Hence, he traverses a major portion of the Earth in the course of a shorter period.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.44-45 “Thus the sun traverses the quarters by means of his swift chariot with one wheel. The horses are splendid but they do not have the usual place (? Akramaih). In the course of a day and night, the sun traverses the earth consisting of the seven continents and oceans by means of his chariot with a single wheel.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.35-36 “Understand the movement of the sun during the southern transit, as he goes to that quarter. His movement is above all the guardians of the quarters. During this southern transit, the sun rushes forward like an arrow that is discharged. He revolved always, taking the circle of luminaries with him. [45-46] The sun revolves rapidly like the whirling firebrand. Moving about, the sun traverses the revolving constellations. Thus the sun thereby moves to the south among the four quarters. The sun rises and sets again and again” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Matsya Purana 126.41-46 “The Sun in course of one single day and night goes swiftly over the world consisting of the seven oceans and the seven islands, seating in His one-wheeled chariot and drawn by seven horses. The seven horses yoked to the Sun’s chariot are no other than the seven chhandas metres); they can assume forms at their will; they go as they like…Ascending on such a chariot the Sun travels the earth in course of one day (24 hours.) The horses were yoked at the beginning of Kalpa and carry on the Sun toll the end of the Great Dissolution (Maha Pralaya). Thus He goes on round and round, day and night, surrounded by the Valakhillya Munis…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Matsya Purana 128.71-73 “The Sun moves lowest down of all the planets. Above Him the Moon travels. The stars travel above the Moon; above Moon, travels Mercury; above Mercury, travels Venus; above Venus, travels Mars; above Mars, travels Jupiter; above Jupiter, travels Saturn.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Matsya Purana 125.50-58 “…The success of the sun’s chariot is due to the conjunction (with Dhruva). Thus this divine solar chariot moves about in the heaven. The pins of the yoke and axle are on its south. The pair of reins of the yoke and the wheel of this aerial chariot revolve round and round in all directions like the potter’s wheel…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Vayu Purana I.52.43-44 “Thus the Sun moves ahead quickly in his celestial sphere by means of his single-wheeled chariot dragged by the unimpaired gentle horses. In the course of a day and night he traverses over the world of seven continents and oceans by means of his single wheeled chariot dragged by the seven horses.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.142 “Within a short time, therefore, the sun traverses the extensive earth. Within twelve Muhurtas it traverses quickly from the south to the north.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.119-121; Matsya Purana 124.40-60 “When the sun passes through the middle of the sky, it traverses one thirtieth of the diameter of the earth in a Muhurta (forty eight minutes). In regard to the distance traversed in Yojanas, know that it is three million one hundred and fifty thousand in full. This is the distance traverses by the sun in one Muhurta.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.60 “Revolving all round, the Sun illuminates and protects the three worlds. Hence on account of illumination and protection, he is called ‘Ravi’. The root av means ‘illumination’ (and protection.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.51.68-69 “With that the lord Sun moves quickly in the heaven. There are two reins of the chariot tied to the tips of the pole and the axle. Propelled by Dhruva the chariot moves in the sky in a circular fashion.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.92-93 “Understand the solar movement when the sun reaches south during the southern transit all round above the guardians of the worlds. In his transit to the south, the sun moves fast like a discharged arrow. It takes the group of luminary bodies with it and revolves always.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.151-4 “During the northern transit, the movement of the moon (?) is slow during day and fast during night. During the southern transit the sun’s movement is dast during day and slow during night. Dividing nights and days thus by its special diverse movements, the sun traverses the path by its even (regular) and uneven (irregular) movement.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana Section I.54.9-12 “…Similarly when the sucker of waters (i.e. the sun) moves about in the middle of Puskara the mountain to the north of Manasa, he traverses a thirtieth part of the earth in a Muhurta (48 mts). Understand this number in yojanas travelled in a Muhurta. The speed of the noble souled sun per Muhurta is three million one hundred and fifty thousand yojanas…” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.5 “The sun-god, who is Nārāyaṇa, or Viṣṇu, the soul of all the worlds, is situated in outer space between the upper and lower portions of the universe. Passing through twelve months on the wheel of time, the sun comes in touch with twelve different signs of the zodiac…” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.7 “The sun-god has three speeds — slow, fast and moderate. The time he takes to travel entirely around the spheres of heaven, earth and space at these three speeds is referred to, by learned scholars, by the five names Saṁvatsara, Parivatsara, Iḍāvatsara, Anuvatsara and Vatsara.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Satapatha Brahmana 8:7:2:5 “…having once revolved round these worlds, that sun would not pass by them. Let him lay down the two last alongside the two first by reaching over them: he thus causes that sun to pass by these worlds; and hence that sun revolves incessantly round these worlds again and again (from left) to right.” Tr. Julius Eggeling (Source)

Varaha Purana 26.8 “From its lustre arose twelve suns, and the principal one among these now revolves round the world.” Tr. Vankitasubramonia Iyer, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Rig Veda 1.35.9 “The gold-handed, all-beholding luminary travels between the two regions of heaven and earth, dispels diseases, and this, verily, is known as the sun, and it finally overspreads the sky, extending from the dark interspace to the celestial region” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Saraswati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Nirukta 7.23 “The sun having first revolved towards the northern hemisphere, a person holds a polished (piece of) white copper, or crystal, focusing the sun-rays in a place where there is some dry cow-dung, without touching it… Now (had VaisVauara been the sun), there would have occurred expressions relating to VaisVanara in those same hymns and shares which are assigned to celestial deities, i.e. Savitr, [Surya], Pusan, Visnu, and [the VisVedevas.] And they would have praised him by (attributing to him) the functions of the sun, as thou risest, thou settest, thou revolvest, &c.” Tr. Lakshman Sarup (Source)

Sayana commented on the above Rig Veda verse.

“…The divine Savitr moves (īyate) within both heaven and earth—that is, in the midst of both worlds. He thoroughly repels (apa bādhate) afflictions such as diseases. Furthermore, he goes toward (vetti) the Sun. Although Savitr and Surya are essentially the same deity, a distinction exists between the ‘mover’ and the ‘destination’ due to their differing forms…” Sayana on Rig Veda 1.35.9

.

Atharva Veda 13.2.6 “Hail to thy rapid car whereon, O Sūrya, thou circlest in a moment both the limits… [44] The suppliant’s way, filling the earth, the Mighty circleth the world with eye that none deceiveth…” Tr. Ralph T.H. Griffith (Source)

Atharva Veda 6.8.3 “As in his rapid course the Sun encompasses the heaven and: earth…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

यथा [Yatha] = As the, Like the.
सूर्य [Surya] = Sun .
एति [Yeti] = goes.
परि [Pari] = around.
घावा [Ghava] = Heaven.
पृथ्वी [Puthvi] = Earth.

.

Sayana commented on Atharva Veda 6.8.3, “Just as these visible heaven and earth, and the sky—as the Sun, the prompter of all and the maker of light, quickly encompasses and pervades them on all sides—even so, O woman, I encompass and thoroughly reach your mind…”

.

Atharva Veda 6.12.1 “I, As the Sun goes round the heaven, have travelled round the Serpents’ race. I ward thy poison off, as Night parts all else living from the Sun.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

.

Many verses explicitly state that the Sun travels around the Earth, leaving little room for apologetic reinterpretation. Hindu scriptures repeatedly describe the Sun as moving in a chariot pulled by seven horses and even discuss the speed at which the Sun moves around the Earth. Such descriptions clearly indicate that, according to Hindu cosmology, the Sun revolves around a stationary Earth rather than the other way around.

.

.

Sun moves in a chariot pulled by Seven Horses

The depiction of the Sun travelling in a chariot pulled by seven horses closely resembles Greek mythology, where the Sun god Helios is described in similar terms. Even the Indian Prime Minister from a Hindu nationalist party has stated, “In our mythology we have imagined the Sun god Surya riding on seven horses.” This claim is explicitly rooted in Hindu scriptures, which describe the Sun as moving through the sky in a horse drawn chariot.

Rig Veda 1.50.8 “Seven Bay Steeds harnessed to thy car bear thee, O thou farseeing One,
God, Sūrya, with the radiant hair.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

.

Rig Veda 10.49.7 “I travel round about borne onward in my might by the fleet-footed dappled Horses of the Sun…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

.

Rig Veda 4.45.6 “The rays advancing nigh, chasing with day the gloom, spread through the firmament bright radiance like the Sun; And the Sun harnessing his horses goeth forth: ye through your Godlike nature let his paths be known.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.

 

Sayana commented on it as follows,

“‘Akenipāḥ’ refers to the rays that fall nearby. They, along with the days, dispel the darkness. Like the Sun, the horses of the Ashvins arrive, spreading bright light. The Sun, harnessing his steeds, proceeds. O Ashvins! You both, with your own inherent power, make known the paths of arrival through the Soma offering. You provide the wisdom to perceive the way.” Sayana on Rig Veda 4.45.6

Mahabharata 13.158.20-22 “…the sun possessed of a thousand rays… He it is that constitutes the wheel of the year, having three naves and seven horses to drag it…He is the sun, the dispeller of all darkness.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.21.12-19 “Thus the chariot of the sun-god, which is trayimaya, or worshiped by the words om bhur bhuvah svah, travels through the four residences…My dear King, the carriage of the sun-god’s chariot is estimated to be 3,600,000 yojanas [28,800,000 miles] long and one-fourth as wide [900,000 yojanas, or 7,200,000 miles]. The chariot’s horses, which are named after Gayatri and other Vedic meters, are harnessed by Arunadeva to a yoke that is also 900,000 yojanas wide. This chariot continuously carries the sun-god. Although Arunadeva sits in front of the sun-god and is engaged in driving the chariot and controlling the horses, he looks backward toward the sun-god…My dear King, in his orbit through Bhu-mandala [Earth], the sun-god traverses a distance of 95,100,000 yojanas [760,800,000 miles] at the speed of 2,000 yojanas and two krosas [16,004 miles] in a moment.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Vayu Purana I.51.54-58 “Now listen to the description of the Sun’s Chariot. It has one wheel with five spokes and three naves. The Lord Sun goes ahead on his Chariot that has golden wheel, that is very powerful, that has knotty joints, that has six-fold rim and one felly, which dispells darkness on the way. Its width is ten thousand Yojanas. Its length from the middle (cockpit) to the shaft is twice of it (twenty thousad Yojanas). This Chariot had been made by Brahma for some specific purpose. It is divine and golden. Swift horses have been yoked to it. It is the Vedic metres that have assumed the forms of the horses. It is stationed in the sphere of Sukra (Venus). It has the characteristics similar to those of Varuna’s chariot. In this shining Chariot the Sun traverses the sky.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.50 “…The lord of the day (i.e. the sun) thus revolves and wanders by means of horses that gallop and that are as swift as birds.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana I.55.81-82 “Thus the sun, the harbinger of the day moves ahead quickly in a single wheeled chariot drawn by seven green imperishable horses. He whirls day and night in his chariot which has a single wheel. He traverses in heaven over the seven continents and oceans with the help of seven groups.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri

Devi Bhagavatam 8.15.40-45 “…The seat of the Sun on his chariot measures 36 Lakh Yoyanas wide. The Yuga measures in length one fourth of the above dimensions, that of his seat. The Chariot is moved by seven horses, consisting of the seven Chhandas, Gâyatrî, etc., driven by Aruna. The horses carry the Sun for the happiness of all. Though the charioteer sits in front of the Sun, his face is turned towards the west. He does his work as a charioteer in that state…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.46-48. “The chariot is yoked with only seven horses. They are the Veḍic Metres that have assumed the form of horses. They are stationed towards the place where the wheel is fitted. They assume the forms as they wish. They are green, imperishable; they (? are accompanied) by tawny-coloured masters expounding the Brahman. In the course of a year those horses traverse eighty-three hundred circles.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

This imagery may well have been inspired by the Trundholm Sun Chariot, a motif commonly found in European mythologies. Some Hindu apologists attempt to defend this description by arguing that the seven horses are not literal horses but represent seven rays of the Sun. However, even Hindu scholars themselves are inconsistent, with some interpreting the horses as rays and others as the seven days of the week. This lack of agreement already weakens the apologetic explanation.

Moreover, Hindu scriptures repeatedly describe the Sun as possessing a thousand rays, not seven. Neither the Puranas nor the Mahabharata explicitly state that the seven horses symbolise rays. If the seven horses are interpreted as rays, then the same logic would imply that the Moon emits ten rays, since Hindu scriptures also describe the Moon as travelling in a chariot pulled by ten horses. Such an interpretation is clearly untenable.

Hindu texts consistently describe the Sun, including in the Vedas, as having a thousand rays, and the names of the seven horses differ from the names of the Sun’s rays mentioned elsewhere in the scriptures. In fact, Hindu texts explicitly state that the seven horses are the seven Vedic metres that have assumed the form of horses, leaving little room for symbolic reinterpretation. Some also claim that the single wheel of the chariot represents the year and its five spokes represent the five seasons. While this symbolism may hold to an extent, it does not imply that the chariot itself is metaphorical. Just as the colours of the Indian tricolour symbolise specific values and the Ashoka Chakra represents the eternal wheel of law, symbolic meaning does not negate physical description.

Hindu scriptures even provide measurements of the Sun’s chariot. If the chariot is purely symbolic, the inclusion of its size becomes difficult to explain. The texts also repeatedly state that the Sun moves around the Earth in this chariot. Similarly, the Moon is described as having its own chariot, raising the question of what such imagery signifies if everything is dismissed as metaphor. References such as Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.44 to 45 and Vayu Purana I.52.43-44 explicitly describe the Sun revolving around the Earth in a horse drawn chariot with a charioteer. The presence of a charioteer further reinforces the literal nature of the description.

Logically, the Sun does not move or revolve through rays. Before mentioning the seven horses, the Mahabharata 13.158.20-22 already describes the Sun as having a thousand rays and seven horses, which clearly distinguishes rays from horses. If the seven horses of the Sun are interpreted as rays, then the ten horses of the Moon would also have to be interpreted as rays, implying that the Moon emits ten types of rays. This interpretation is unsupported by both logic and the texts themselves, further demonstrating that the apologetic explanations lack credibility.

.

.

.

Even the Moon moves around the earth in a chariot pulled by horses

Brahmanda Purana 1.2.23.50-51 “He is served by Gandharvas and groups of celestial damsels by means of sons and dances. The lord of the day (i.e. the sun) thus revolves and wanders by means of horses that gallop and that are as swift as birds. The chariot of Soma (the Moon) has three wheels. His horses have the lustre of Kunda (white jasmine) flowers. They are ten in number and they are yoked to the left as well as to the right. The moon traverses by means of this.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Vayu Purana I.52.50-51 “The chariot of the Moon has three wheels. The horses are tied in pairs on either side. The chariot along with the horses and the charioteer has come out of the womb of the waters. The three wheels have a hundred spokes. Excellent white horses have been yoked thereto. They are ten in number. They are slender and divine. They are unimpeded and have the velocity of the mind. They are yoked but once (in the beginning of the Kalpa) and they travels till the end of the Yugas.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Matsya Purana 126.49 “The swift running divine horses yoked to the Moon’s chariot are ten in number; they run as swift as wind and they are without any attachment; once yoked, they carry the car till the end of the Great Dissolution.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

.

Speed of Celestial Bodies

.

Speed of Sun moving around the Earth

Linga Purana Section I.54.9-12 “…Similarly when the sucker of waters (i.e. the sun) moves about in the middle of Puskara the mountain to the north of Manasa, he traverses a thirtieth part of the earth in a Muhurta (48 mts). Understand this number in yojanas travelled in a Muhurta. The speed of the noble souled sun per Muhurta is three million one hundred and fifty thousand yojanas…” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.119-121 “When the sun passes through the middle of the sky, it traverses one thirtieth of the diameter of the earth in a Muhurta (forty eight minutes). In regard to the distance traversed in Yojanas, know that it is three million one hundred and fifty thousand in full. This is the distance traverses by the sun in one Muhurta.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

1 Muhurta = 48 minutes

1 Yojana = 8 miles (as per Hindu translators of Puranas)

3,150,000 Yojana*8 miles = 25,200,000

25,200,000/48 = 525,000 i.e. speed in one minute

525,000*60 = 31,500,000 miles per hour

According to modern science,
“The Sun’s orbital speed around the Galaxy: ~200 km/s (720,000 km/h, 450,000 mph) The speed of the ground beneath your feet, as a result of the Earth’s rotation: 1000 km/h (600 mph) at the latitude of Sheffield (53 degrees); it goes up to 1670 km/h (1000 mph) at the equator.” Source, another reference.

The Vayu Purana states that the orbital speed of the sun is 31,500,000 mph, while modern science estimates it at 450,000 mph, a figure that is vastly lower than that mentioned in the Puranas. The Brahmanda Purana gives yet another value, so it is worth examining that as well.

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.60-65 “…Thus, when the sun traverses the middle of the sky, it passes through parts of the earth in the course of a Muhurta as it were (?) Understand the number of Yojanas here in the course of a Muhurta. It is one hundred and eightyone thousand Yojanas. This is the speed of the sun in a Muhurta.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

181,000*8 = 1,448,000 miles

1,448,000/48 = 30,166 in a minute

30,166*60= 1,810,000 mph

This figure is also inaccurate, and the speed mentioned in the Srimad Bhagavata (Bhagavata Purana) differs, so it is important to assess its authenticity as well.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.21.12 “Thus the chariot of the sun-god, which is trayīmaya, or worshiped by the words om bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ, travels through the four residences mentioned above at a speed of 3,400,800 yojanas [27,206,400 miles] in a muhūrta.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

mph already given hence,

27,206,400/48 (1 Muhurta) = 566,800

566,800*60= 34,008,000 mph

In contrast, the orbital speed of the sun is 450,000 mph. The verse cited earlier specifies the speed of the sun in four particular regions, whereas the following verse gives its general speed as 600,150 mph.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.21.19 “My dear King, in his orbit through Bhū-maṇḍala, the sun-god traverses a distance of 95,100,000 yojanas [760,800,000 miles] at the speed of 2,000 yojanas and two krośas [16,004 miles] in a moment.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

.

.

.

Moon travels faster than the Sun

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.8 “Above the rays of the sunshine by a distance of 100,000 yojanas [800,000 miles] is the moon, which travels at a speed faster than that of the sun. In two lunar fortnights the moon travels through the equivalent of a saṁvatsara of the sun, in two and a quarter days it passes through a month of the sun, and in one day it passes through a fortnight of the sun.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

It states that the Moon travels faster than the Sun, whereas according to modern science, the Moon’s speed is as follows.

“The Moon orbits Earth at a speed of 2,288 miles per hour (3,683 kilometers per hour). During this time it travels a distance of 1,423,000 miles (2,290,000 kilometers).” (Source)

Whereas the sun travels at a speed of 450,000 mph, modern science thus considers it to move faster than the moon, a conclusion that directly contradicts the account given in Vedic science.

.

.

Speed of Planets

Brahmanda Purana I.2.24.110-1 “Three planets among them which orbit very far away and above all are the Saturn, the Jupiter and the Mars. It should be known that they orbit very slowly. The great planets beneath them are the four fast moving ones, viz. the sun, the moon, the Mercury and the Venus.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Speed of “slow moving” planets according to science.

Speed of Saturn 34,821 kilometers per hour. (Source)

Speed of Jupiter 47,051 kilometers per hour. (Source)

Speed of Mars 86,871 kilometers per hour. (Source)

.

Speed of “fast moving” planets according to science.

Speed of Mercury 170,505 kilometers) per hour. (Source)

Speed of Venus 78,341 miles per hour. (Source)

Speed of Moon 3,683 kilometers per hour. (Source)

Mars orbits faster than Venus, yet it is classified as a slow-moving planet in the Puranas. Similarly, the moon orbits very slowly, but it is included among the fast-moving planets. However, the classification is accurate in the case of Saturn and Jupiter when compared to Mercury and Venus.

.

.

 .

Size of Earth, Moon, Sun and other Planets

Size of the Earth

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.12 “…The entire Earth is remembered as fifty crores (of Yojanas) in extent.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.68-70 “The entire earth is known as fifty crores (of Yojanas) in extent. From the middle of Meru on all four sides is half of it. Half the extent of the earth is stated in terms of Yojanas. The extent of the earth towards all the sides (quarters) from the middle of Meru is said to be eleven crores and eighty nine lakhs (of Yojanas) and fifty thousand.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Shiva Purana Section 1 Vidyeśvara-saṃhitā, chapter 12, verse 2 “The Earth, fifty crores of yojanas in extent, abounding in mountains and forests, supports the people at the bidding of Śiva.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)

Matsya Purana 124.12 “The Divyas are similar to the Sampratas in their entire distribution. The complete magnitude of the earth is 50 core (yojanas).” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Vishnu Purana 2.4.18 “…Such, Maitreya, is the earth, which with its continents, mountains, oceans, and exterior shell, is fifty crores (five hundred millions) of Yojanas in extent…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

500,000,000 multiplied by 8 equals 4,000,000,000 miles. This figure is nowhere close to the values established by modern science and does not correspond to either the Earth’s circumference or its diameter.

“The radius of Earth at the equator is 3,963 miles (6,378 kilometers), according to NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. However, Earth is not quite a sphere. The planet’s rotation causes it to bulge at the equator. Earth’s polar radius is 3,949 miles (6,356 km) — a difference of 14 miles (22 km). Using those measurements, the equatorial circumference of Earth is about 24,900 miles (40,070 km). However, from pole-to-pole — the meridional circumference — Earth is only 24,812 miles (39,931 km) around. This shape, caused by the flattening at the poles, is called an oblate spheroid.” Source

.

The Devi Bhagavatam offers yet another numerical value for the Earth’s dimensions, which is equally inconsistent with scientific measurements.

Devi Bhagavatam 8.18.11-24 “…O Best of the twice-born! Below this Antarîksa is this earth, measuring one hundred Yoyanas…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

.

Size of the Sun

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.69 “The circumference of the sun is estimated to be nine crores of Yojanas as well as forty five hundred thousands (i.e. 9,45,00000 Yojanas).” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.7 “The extent of the disc of the sun is nine thousand Yojanas. Its girth is three times the extent.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

The same text presents contradictory numerical values, so it is necessary to examine both figures independently.

9 crores of Yojanas is the circumference of the Sun as per Brahmanda Purana,

90,000,000*8= 720,000,000 miles

9,45,00000*8= 756,000,000 miles

As per the second verse,

9,000*8= 72,000 miles

“The sun is nearly a perfect sphere. Its equatorial diameter and its polar diameter differ by only 6.2 miles (10 km). The mean radius of the sun is 432,450 miles (696,000 kilometers), which makes its diameter about 864,938 miles (1.392 million km). You could line up 109 Earths across the face of the sun. The sun’s circumference is about 2,713,406 miles (4,366,813 km).” Source

.

Size of the Moon

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.24.2 “The sun globe, which is a source of heat, extends for 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles]. The moon extends for 20,000 yojanas [160,000 miles], and Rāhu extends for 30,000 yojanas [240,000 miles]…” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Devi Bhagavatam 8.18.1-9 “…So the sphere of the Moon extends upto the twelve thousand Yoyanas…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

Diameter of Moon given in Srimad Bhagavatam is,

160,000 miles

Diameter of Moon given in Devi Bhagavatam is,

12,000*8= 96,000 miles

.

Diameter of Moon as per modern science is,

“The moon’s mean radius is 1,079.6 miles (1,737.5 kilometers). Double those figures to get its diameter: 2,159.2 miles
(3,475 km). The moon’s equatorial circumference is 6,783.5 miles (10,917 km).
The moon’s surface area is about 14.6 million square miles (38 million square kilometers), which is less than the total surface area of the continent of Asia (17.2 million sq mi or 44.5 million sq km).” Source

.

Sizes of Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn

The sizes of Venus, Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn are given only in relative ratios rather than in yojanas, and this makes the error immediately apparent. According to this description, Jupiter is portrayed as smaller than Venus, even though Jupiter is in fact the largest planet in the solar system, revealing a clear inconsistency in the stated proportions.

Brahmanda Purana I.2.24.104-6; Matsya Purana 128.64-65 “The diameter and extent of the sphere of Bhargava (the Venus) it laid down as one sixteenth of that of the moon. Brhaspati (the Jupiter) should be known as one-fourth less than the Venus (i.e. three fourth of its size). The Mars and Saturn are remembered to be three fourths of Jupiter in extent. In diameter and extent, Mercury is three-fourths of either of them.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

According to Brahmanda Purana and Matsya Purana, the diameter and extent of Venus are stated to be one sixteenth of that of the Moon. Given that the mean radius of the Moon is approximately 1,737 kilometres, dividing this by sixteen yields about 108 kilometres. This implies that the Puranas assign Venus a mean radius of only 108 kilometres, even though Venus is in fact significantly larger than the Moon, with a mean radius of about 6,051 kilometres. This represents a major discrepancy. Notably, the Linga Purana provides entirely different planetary size figures, further highlighting the lack of consistency. I will present that verse separately without interpretation.

Linga Purana I.57.13-15 “The diameter, the circumference and the distance in yojanas of Bhargava (Venus) is a sixteenth part of that of the moon. Brhaspati (Jupiter) is of three-fourths of the size of Venus. Mars and Saturn are three-fourths of the size of Brhaspati. Budha (Mercury) is three-fourths of their size in extent and circumference.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

The contradictions between these two verses indicate that the figures were derived from imagination and conjecture rather than systematic observation, and therefore lack both scientific credibility and any claim to divine revelation.

.

.

Moon is bigger in size than the Sun

The following verses not only make the unscientific claim that the Moon is larger than the Sun, but also provide incorrect measurements for the sizes of both the Sun and the Moon.

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.8 “In diameter as well as girth (Circumference), the moon is twice as much as the sun.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Brahmanda Purana 1.2.24.99b-103. The diameter of the sun is remembered as nine thousand Yojanas. The extent of its sphere is three times that. The area of the moon’s sphere is remembered as twice the area of the sun.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.53.61-62 “…The diameter of the Sun is nine thousand Yojanas. The girth of the Sun is three times its diameter. The width of the Moon is twice that of the Sun.”Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Vayu Purana I.50.63 “The extent of the sun is nine thousand Yojanas. The girth or the extent of its disc is thrice its diameter. The lunar disc is twice the solar disc (in diameter as well as girth).” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

The same is repeated in Kurma Purana I.41.13.

Matsya Purana 124.7-8 “The circumference of the sun is equal to the diameter of the Bharatavarsa (?). It is 9,000 yojnas in diameter and three times as much in circumference. The moon is twice as much bigger in circumference and diameter than the sun.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Linga Purana I.61.28-29 “The diameter of the sun is nine thousand yojanas. The extent of its circular surface is three times that. The extent of the moon is twice that of the sun…” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatham 5.24.2 “The sun globe, which is a source of heat, extends for 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles]. The moon extends for 20,000 yojanas [160,000 miles], and Rāhu extends for 30,000 yojanas [240,000 miles].” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Another scientific blunder, there is no need to provide proof but still for your ease let me present the size of the sun and moon as per science,

Size of the Sun according to science is,

“The sun is nearly a perfect sphere. Its equatorial diameter and its polar diameter differ by only 6.2 miles (10 km). The mean radius of the sun is 432,450 miles (696,000 kilometers), which makes its diameter about 864,938 miles (1.392 million km). You could line up 109 Earths across the face of the sun. The sun’s circumference is about 2,713,406 miles (4,366,813 km).” Source

Size of the Moon according to science is,

“The moon’s mean radius is 1,079.6 miles (1,737.5 kilometers). Double those figures to get its diameter: 2,159.2 miles
(3,475 km). The moon’s equatorial circumference is 6,783.5 miles (10,917 km).
The moon’s surface area is about 14.6 million square miles (38 million square kilometers), which is less than the total surface area of the continent of Asia (17.2 million sq mi or 44.5 million sq km).” Source

According to Hindu cosmology, both the Sun and the Moon revolve around the Earth, and because the Moon appears larger than the Sun to the naked eye, the Rishis may have concluded that the Moon was physically larger than the Sun.

.

.

.

All Planets and Stars originated from the Sun

Brahmanda Purana I.2.24.46 “All these, viz. the moon, the stars and the planets should be known as originating from the sun. The moon is the lord of all stars and the sun is the king of planets.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana I.59.41-45 “…It should be known that the moon, stars and planets are all born of the sun…” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

.

.

.

Moon has Water

Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.78-79 “The divine spheres of the sun and the moon are sparkling and white. They are of the form (or full of) of fire and water. They move about in the firmament. They resemble auspicious round pots. The sphere of the moon is remembered to be consisting of dense water. The white and brilliantly sparkling sphere of the sun is composed of dense fiery splendour.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vayu Purana I.53.57 “The orb of the Moon is of solid water and the orb of the Sun is of solid refulgence.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Vayu Purana I.53.84-86 “Thus the abodes and their resident deities are mentioned. The abode of the thousand rayed Sun is full of fire and sparkling. The abode of the thousand rayed Moon is full of water and sparkling white. The abode of the five rayed charming planet Budha is dark in color.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana I.52.3 “The storehouse of water in the sky which is called Soma (moon) is the support of all living beings. To Devas, it is the receptacle of nectar.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Hinduism also states that the moon is born from the waters.

Matsya Purana 126.48 “The Moon has been born from waters along with His chariot, horses and the charioteer. That chariot is decorated with fine garlands and yoked with excellent white horses, rests on three wheels.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

In contrast, the following verse mentions the chariot and horses without explicitly mentioning the moon.

Brahmanda Purana 2.23.53 “It should be known that the chariot of the moon has three wheels with horses on either side. The chariot is born (i.e. evolved) out of the womb of the waters along with the horses and the charioteer.” Tr. G.V. Tagar (Source)

.

.

How Full Moon occurs

According to Hinduism, the sun fills the moon with a nectar that endures until 33,330 Devas consume it, after which the moon turns dark. The nectar is described as sweet like honey and composed of the essence of watery juice. It serves as the food of the Devas, granting them immortality. This appears to be a reference to Soma Ras.

Vayu Purana I.52.60-66 “Beginning with the second day in the dark half and ending with the fourteenth day Devas drink the watery wine, the nectar of the Moon that is essentially made up of water and that by nature consists of tasty essence. By the brilliance of the Sun the nectar is collected and prepared in the course of a fortnight. On the full moon night Devas, Pitrs and the sages attend the Moon facing the Sun. The digits being drunk decline gradually in the dark half and become refilled in the bright half. When days pass on gradually Devas drink the moon for half a month until the new moon day and go away. On the new moon day Pitrs resort to the Moon. When the fifteenth part of the digits is left over in the later part of the day, that part is used up by the groups of Pitrs. The remaining digit is drunk by Pitrs during the period of two Kalas. From the lunar rays the nectar of Svadha comes out on the new moon night. They drink the nectar and remain content for a month. They attain immortality.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Matsya Purana 126.53-60 “…in the dark fortnight, the Moon wanes daily from the second day till the Chaturdasi tithi (the fourteenth day after the full Moon) when the Devas drink up the soft and excellent nectar of the Moon, sweet like honey and consisting of the essence of the watery juice. For half the month the nectar becomes stored up in the Moon by the Sun’s ray, so that the Devas would be able to drink it; and the quantity of this nectar becomes maximum on the full moon night when the Devas adore the Moon for another supply of the same, gathered from the Sun’s radiance in course of a fortnight.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Matsya Purana 126.61-70 “…From the beginning of the dark fortnight the Moon turns black, wanes and becomes dull; His digits decline owing to His nectar being drunk up day by day. 33330 Devas drink the lunar ambrosia. The Moon thus declines during the dark fortnight and waxes until He becomes complete in the bright fortnight. Thus, drinking the nectar, the Devas, at the end of the fortnight, go away elsewhere on the Amasvasya (dark) night when the Pitris come to Him. When the still small portion of the 15th part of the Moon is left, they drink that in the afternoon on the next day for a brief period of two kalas and go away after the completion of this dark fortnight…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Vishnu Purana 2.12.1-9 “The radiant sun supplies the moon, when reduced by the draughts of the gods to a single Kalá, with a single ray; and in the same proportion as the ruler of the night was exhausted by the celestials, it is replenished by the sun, the plunderer of the waters: for the gods, Maitreya, drink the nectar and ambrosia accumulated in the moon during half the month, and from this being their food they are immortal. Thirty-six thousand three hundred and thirty-three divinities drink the lunar ambrosia. When two digits remain, the moon enters the orbit of the sun, and abides in the ray called Amá; whence the period is termed Amávásya. In that orbit the moon is immersed for a day and night in the water; thence it enters the branches and shoots of the trees; and thence goes to the sun.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

.

.

Moon Emits Rays

One Purana poetically describes the moon’s light as a reflection of the sun’s rays, yet many other Puranas and the Vedas assert that the moon emits its own rays.

Vayu Purana I.51.20 “The hot rays emanate from the sun; the cool rays from the moon. These two powerful hot and cool rays sustain the universe.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Vayu Purana I.52.49 “The Moon too moves among the stars that stay in the pathway of heaven (vithi). The increase and decrease of its rays are similar to the increase and decrease of the Sun” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.23.52 “…The shrinking and lengthening of its rays are remembered as being like those of the sun.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana I.56.3 “The moon traverses in his chariot along with Devas and Pitrs. It has white rays in the form of sparkling water particles.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Rig Veda 10.12.7; Atharva Veda 18.1.35 “In him the gods find pleasure at the sacrifice; they seat themselves on the altar of the sacrifices, They placed light in the sun; beams in the moon; and these untiring shed their light around.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.20.12 “[The inhabitants of Śālmalīdvīpa worship the demigod of the moon in the following words.] By his own rays, the moon-god has divided the month into two fortnights, known as śukla and kṛṣṇa…” Tr. Swami Prabhupada

Swami Prabhupada writes.

“From the descriptions in this verse, we can make an educated guess about the nature of the flames on the moon. Like the sun, the moon must also be full of flames because without flames there cannot be illumination. The flames on the moon, however, unlike those on the sun, must be mild and pleasing. This is our conviction. The modern theory that the moon is full of dust is not accepted in the verses of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam. In regard to this verse, Śrīla Viśvanātha Cakravartī Ṭhākura says, suśaṣpāṇi sukomala-śikhās teṣāṁ rociṣā: the kuśa grass illuminates all directions, but its flames are very mild and pleasing. This gives some idea of the flames existing on the moon.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 5.20.13 (Source)

.

.

Puranic Perspectives on Solar Rays and Seasonal Changes

As the Earth spins on its axis, producing day and night, it also revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, completing the journey in 365 1/4 days. The Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees, which explains the occurrence of seasons. When a hemisphere’s axis tilts toward the Sun, it experiences summer; when it tilts away, winter follows.

In contrast, Vedic science attributes the changing seasons to the Sun, which is said to emit different types and a specific number of rays, varying them to produce the seasonal cycle.

Brahmanda Purana 1.2.24.32-33 “During Vasanta (spring) and Grisma (summer), the sun blazes by means of three hundred rays. During the rainy season and autumn he showers (rain) by means of four hundred rays. During Hemanta (early winter) and Sisira (later winter), he scatters snow by means of three hundred rays.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Linga Purana 1.59.31a-31b “During spring and summer the sun blazes by his three hundred rays. During the rainy season and Autumn he showers rains through the four hundred tubular rays. During the early and the late winter he discharges snow through his three hundred rays.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Linga Purana I.59.41-45 “…The thousand rays of the sun serve the purpose of the world. Reaching the earth they assume different forms by emitting snow, rain and heat…” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

Vayu Purana I.52.36 “In accordance with the seasons, the Sun changes his rays, releasing heat in the summer, mist and fog in the winter and rain during the rainy season and demarcates day and night. He (thus) propitiates Devas, Pitrs and human beings.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Vayu Purana I.53.25-27; Linga Purana I.59.31a-31b “During the spring and the summer he blazes with the three hundred rays. During rains and autumn he generates rain by the four (hundred rays). The Sun creates mist and fog by means of the three (hundred rays) during early and late winter. He deposits energy on the medicinal herbs. By means of Svadha he propitiates Pitrs. By means of nectar of three varieties he bestows immorality. Thus thousand rays of the Sun achieve the purpose of the worlds. They differ according to the season by exuding water, chilliness and heat.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Matsya Purana 128.24-25 “During spring and hot weather the sun imparts heat by his three hundred rays; during the rainy season and autumn causes rain by his four hundred rays; during the dewy and winter season imparts cold by his three hundred rays.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

The Brahmanda Purana also states that the Sun moves at a moderate speed so that day and night are of equal length during the autumn and spring seasons.

Brahmanda Purana I.2.21.142 “During the time in between the Autumn and the Spring, the sun proceeds with a medium speed and he resorts to its eastern peak.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

.

What causes Hoarfrost/Dew Drops?

Hinduism states that the four elephants of the four quarters, spraying water from their massive trunks, cause hoarfrost. While one could argue this refers to clouds taking any shape, the text clearly speaks of the elephants supporting the earth. This is reinforced by the 43rd verse, which states, “Elephants, mountains, and clouds along with serpents belong to one and the same family.” If the passage intended to describe a type of cloud, it would not have distinguished elephants from clouds. The Brahmanda Purana makes this distinction even clearer.

Vayu Purana I.51.45-47 “During Hemanta (early winter) Parjanya and the elephants of the quarters born of chilliness shower snow (drops) for making the corn flourish…The elephants of the quarters spray all round drops of water from the Ganga by means of their huge trunks. That (spray of water) is called the hoarfrost.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Vishnu Purana 2.9.16-18 “…the water, although that of the Gangá of the sky, is scattered, by the elephants of the quarters, not by the rays of the sun: it is only when such rain falls, and the sun is in the even asterisms, that it is distributed by his beams.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.2.22.47-52a “Smoke is conducive to development of all of them without any distinction. The most excellent among them is Parjanya. The Elephants of the quarters are four in number (Although) these are separate, the source of origin of elephants, mountains, clouds and serpents is the same and water is remembered as that origin. On being directed to make the plants and trees flourish, Parjanya and the Diggajas (Elephants of the quarters) showers snowdrops during Hemanta (early winter), born of cool virility. …With their huge trunks, the elephants of the quarters receive the waters oozing from the Ganga and scatter them in the form of water spray. That is remembered as dew drops.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

.

Unique way to cause Rain

A Hindu MP in India was ridiculed for claiming that Smoke from Yajna goes up, rainfall comes down. What many may not realize is that his statement was based on Hindu scriptures. If people wish to mock his comment, they should equally question the scriptures themselves, which contain similar descriptions. Although these statements appear literal, it is asserted that sacrifices please the gods, who then permit rainfall, thereby enriching the earth.

Yajur Veda 2.16 “We perform the yajna for Vasus, Rudras and Adityas…The desired oblation (Ahuti) reaches the space, comes in contact with air and the light of that sun. It thence brings down rain for us…” Tr. Devi Chand (Source)

Yajur Veda 3.49 “The oblation full of cooked articles put into the fire, goes up to the sky. And returns there from full of rain.” Tr. Devi Chand (Source)

Gita 3.14 “All living bodies subsist on food grains, which are produced from rains. Rains are produced by performance of yajña [sacrifice], and yajña is born of prescribed duties.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Manu Smriti 3.76. “An oblation duly thrown into the fire, reaches the sun; from the sun comes rain, from rain food, therefrom the living creatures (derive their subsistence).” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)

Maitrayana Brahmana 6.37 … ‘The oblation which is properly thrown on the fire, goes toward the sun; from the sun comes rain…”

.

The following verse states that Soma, mixed with water and offered into the fire, ascends to heaven, transforms into a cloud, and then returns as rain.

Yajur Veda 33.90; Rig Veda 1.105.1; Atharva Veda 18.4.89 “Within the Waters runs the Moon, he with the beauteous wings, in heaven…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Uvvata commented on above verse as follows.

“The Moon [resides] within the waters. The transformation of the sacrificial oblation is described here. That very Moon has thus attained the form of Soma. Having been pressed/extracted, it remains within the midst of the waters in the form of rasa (essence or juice). Being offered into the fire, it becomes Suparna—the ‘well-winged’ or ‘well-flying’—and soars in the heavens. Consequently, assuming the form of Parjanya (the rain-cloud), it [provides] wealth (rayi) through the gift of water—wealth that is pishangam (tawny or golden-colored), abundant, and immeasurable. It is puruspruham, that which many desire. The Hari (greenish-tawny) Soma proceeds, kanikradat, thundering intensely in the guise of the rain-cloud.” Uvvata on Yajur Veda 33.90

.

Mahidhara commented on it as follows,

“…Now, the meaning according to the sacrifice (adhiyajna): The Moon (Chandrama) is that which measures or creates the delight (chandra) of the Devas. The Soma, in the form of a creeper, having been pressed and residing within the waters—specifically the Vasativari and Nigrabha waters—remains in the form of essence. Having been offered in the fire, it becomes Suparna, possessing the form of Garuda, and being ‘well-falling’ (or well-flying), it moves quickly to the heavens. The root sṛ (to go) is substituted by dhāv to denote swift motion, as per the Shruti: ‘Soma was in the third heaven from here’…” Mahidhara on Yajur Veda 33.90

.

.

.

Clouds originating from wildfire is conducive to forests

Linga Purana I.54.39-40 “…The cloud originating from sacrificial smoke is conducive to the welfare of the twice born. The cloud originating from the smoke of the forest fires, is conducive to the welfare of the forests.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

.

.

What Causes Earthquakes and Who Lifts the Earth?

.

The Valmiki Ramayana states that four elephants support the earth, and if the easterly elephant, Virupaaksha, moves its trunk, it causes earthquakes on the planet.

Valmiki Ramayana 1.40.13-22 “While digging the earth there they beheld a mountain similar easterly elephant named Viruupaaksha, which is bearing the eastern side of earth’s surface on its head. Oh, Rama, the legatee of Raghu, that great easterly elephant Viruupaaksha is bearing the entire eastern earth along with its mountains and forests on its head. On certain occasions, oh, Rama of Kakutstha, when that great-elephant moves its head desiring respite in tiresomeness then earthquakes will occur on earth. After splitting the eastern direction then they split opened the southern direction, and even in southern direction they beheld an elephant that is similar to a very great mountain, and that is sustaining southerly side of earth on its head, and on seeing that mammoth elephant of venerable character, namely Mahapadma, they went into an inordinate astonishment. Even in the westerly direction those great mighty sons of Sagara beheld an infinite and mountain similar elephant of western direction, called Sumanasa. In the northern direction, oh, Rama, they beheld Bhadra, a snow-white elephant with an auspicious body bearing northern side of this earth.” Tr. Desiraju Hanumanta Rao (Source)

.

The 6th-century Indian astronomer Varahamihira also writes about this.

क्षितिकंम्पमाहुरेके बृहदन्तर्जलनिवासिसत्वकृतम् ।
भूभारखिन्नदिग्गजविश्रामसमुद्भवं चान्ये ॥१॥
Brihatsamhita 32.1 “Some hold that an earth-quake is caused by huge animals living in the midst of the ocean, while others opine that it is the result of the rest that is availed of by the elephants of the quarters tired by the weight of the earth.” Tr. Panditbhushan V. Subrahmanya Shastri & Vidwan M. Ramkrishna Bhat

I cited his work to demonstrate that the notion of elephants holding up the earth was understood literally, not metaphorically, and that this belief was widely accepted among Hindus even in the sixth century. In contrast, many modern Hindu apologists tend to dismiss every objectionable verse as a metaphor, using reinterpretation to evade the plain meaning of the texts rather than acknowledging what the sources actually state. Similarly, the Vishnu Purana states that Vishnu, in the form of the serpent Shesha, supports the world, and the earth trembles if he yawns.

Vishnu Purana 2.5.20-25 “…Śesha bears the entire world, like a diadem, upon his head, and he is the foundation on which the seven Pátálas rest. His power, his glory, his form, his nature, cannot be described, cannot he comprehended by the gods themselves. Who shall recount his might, who wears this whole earth, like a garland of flowers, tinged of a purple dye by the radiance of the jewels of his crests. When Ananta, his eyes rolling with intoxication, yawns, then earth, with all her woods, and mountains, and seas, and rivers, trembles…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

The Shiva Purana states that earthquakes occur when Shesha stretches himself.

Shiva Purana, Uma Samhita 5, chapter 15, verses 18-21 “Holding the sphere of the earth on his back, Sesa, the lord of Bhutas stands at the root of Patala. He is worshipped for his endless attributes. The power of his virility cannot be adequately described even by the ambitious gods nor can his form be known…With his eyes rolling due to inebriation when Sesa stretches himself, the earth quakes along with all its mountains, oceans and forests.” Tr. J.L. Shastri

.

.

.

Who is Holding Up the Earth/Universe?

Four Elephants

The Srimad Bhagavatam and Devi Bhagavatam also assert that four elephants support the universe.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.20.39 “On the top of Lokāloka Mountain are the four gaja-patis, the best of elephants, which were established in the four directions by Lord Brahmā, the supreme spiritual master of the entire universe. The names of those elephants are Ṛṣabha, Puṣkaracūḍa, Vāmana and Aparājita. They are responsible for maintaining the planetary systems of the universe.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Devi Bhagavatam 8.14.1-29 “…The self-born Brahmâ has placed very big elephants on all sides of it. Hear their names. These are Risabha, Puspachûda, Vâmana, and Aparâjita. These four elephants are said to hold all the Lokas in their respective positions. The Bhagavân Hari gives strength to these elephants and to Indra and others who are reckoned to be His Vibhûtis (powers)…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

.

Porpoise

The Srimad Bhagavatam also states that Vishnu, in the form of a dolphin or gigantic porpoise, supports the universe or the earth.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.23.4 “Some persons describe this system of heavenly luminaries as being supported by the mystical Yogic powers of Lord Vasudeva who has assumed the form of a Gangetic porpoise.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by J.L. Shastri

.

Shesha (Snake)

The Mahabharata and the Puranas state that a serpent named Shesha supports the Earth, which is why snakes are found in the ground.

Mahabharata 3.202.12-13 “…then lay in Yoga sleep on the wide hood of the Snake Sesha of immeasurable energy, and the Creator of the Universe, that highly-blessed and holy Hari, knowing no deterioration, lay on the hood of that Snake encircling the whole Earth…” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.25.2 “Śukadeva Gosvāmī continued: This great universe, situated on one of Lord Anantadeva’s thousands of hoods, appears just like a white mustard seed. It is infinitesimal compared to the hood of Lord Ananta.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

The Mahabharata describes how Adishesha held up the Earth. I am quoting some excerpts from this section.

Mahabharata 1.36.17-25 “Then Sesha replied, ‘O divine Grandsire, this is the boon desired by me; viz., may my heart always delight in virtue and in blessed ascetic penances, O Lord of all!’ Brahman said, ‘O Sesha, I am exceedingly gratified with this thy self-denial and love of peace. But, at my command, let this act be done by thee for the good of my creatures. Bear thou, O Sesha, properly and well this Earth so unsteady with her mountains and forests, her seas and towns and retreats, so that she may be steady.’ Sesha said, ‘O divine Lord of all creatures, O bestower of boons, O lord of the Earth, lord of every created thing, lord of the universe, I will, even as thou sayest hold the Earth steady. Therefore, O lord of all creatures, place her on my head.’ Brahman said, ‘O best of snakes, go underneath the Earth. She will herself give thee a crevice to pass through. And, O Sesha, by holding the Earth, thou shalt certainly do what is prized by me very greatly…Then the elder brother of the king of the snakes, entering a hole, passed to the other side of the Earth, and holding her, supported with his head that goddess with her belt of seas passing all round.’ Brahman said, ‘O Sesha, O best of snakes, thou art the god Dharma, because alone, with thy huge body, thou supportest the Earth with everything on her, even as I myself, or Valavit (Indra), can…The snake, Sesha, the lord Ananta, of great prowess, lives underneath the Earth, alone supporting the world at the command of Brahman. And the illustrious Grandsire, the best of the immortals, then gave unto Ananta the bird of fair feathers, viz., the son of Vinata, for Ananta’s help.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)

The Vishnu Purana Book 2, Chapter 5 states that Sesha is a form of Vishnu, whereas the Mahabharata describes Sesha as a form of Shiva.

Mahabharata 13.14.151 “Mahadeva is the soul of all creatures. He pervades all things. He is the speaker of all discourses (on duties and rituals)…He it is that assumes the form of Sesha who sustains the world on his head…” (Source)

Swami Prabhupada writes,

“The incarnation of the Supreme Personality of Godhead known as Śeṣa or Ananta has unlimited strength, fame, wealth, knowledge, beauty and renunciation. As described in this verse, Ananta’s strength is so great that the innumerable universes rest on His hoods. He has the bodily features of a snake with thousands of hoods, and since His strength is unlimited, all the universes resting on His hoods feel no heavier than mustard seeds. We can just imagine how insignificant a mustard seed is on the hood of a serpent. In this connection, the reader is referred to Śrī Caitanya-caritāmṛta, Ādi-līlā, Chapter Five, verses 117-125. There it is stated that Lord Viṣṇu’s incarnation as the serpentine Ananta Śeṣa Nāga supports all the universes on His hoods. By our calculation, a universe may be very, very heavy, but because the Lord is ananta (unlimited), He feels the weight to be no heavier than a mustard seed.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 5.17.21 (Source)

It is not only elephants, serpents, or a dolphin that are described as supporting the earth. Hindu scriptures also state that Vishnu, in the form of a boar, holds up the earth and once rescued it from sinking into the waters. The following topic is directly linked to this subject.

.

.

Earth is Established on Waters

 

Sri Varaha Avatara. Patna. 1800s. Source

Scientists today spend billions of dollars searching for water on other planets, yet Vishnu’s avatar Varaha is said to have discovered water beneath the earth three thousand years ago and rescued the earth from sinking into it.

Yajur Veda 37.5 “Only so large was it at first. Duly may I prepare for you this day the head of Makha on earth’s place where the Gods sacrificed. For Makha thee, thee for the head of Makha!” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Swami Karpatri Maharaj.

.

Sayana writes on the above verse.

“O Earth! In the beginning, at the time of the elevation of the land that had undergone cosmic dissolution by the glorious Varaha, [you were] this small; this ritual action is performative, intended to mimic a measurement of merely a span (prādeśa). While being attached to the tusk of the Boar, you were as if limited to the dimension of a single span…” Sayana on Yajur Veda 37.5

This verse is elaborated in Satapatha Brahmana as follows.

Satapatha Brahmana 14:1:2:11 “Then (earth) torn up by a boar (he takes), with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 5), ‘Only thus large was she in the beginning,’–for, indeed, only so large was this earth in the beginning, of the size of a span. A boar, called Emûsha, raised her up, and he was her lord Pragâpati: with that mate, his heart’s delight, he thus supplies and completes him 1;–‘may I this day compass for you Makha’s head on the Earth’s place of divine worship: for Makha thee! for Makha’s head thee!’ the import of this is the same as before.” Tr. Julius Eggeling (Source)

Shiva Purana, Vayaviya Samhita 7, Section I, chapter 11, verse 31 “The he lifted the Earth sunk under water and held it on his curved fangs. He rose up from the nether worlds.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)

Harivamsha Purana 3.35.1 “(O janamejaya!) The earth which was installed on the top surface of the water body, did not sink, like a huge ship, due to its vast body.” Tr. Desiraju Hanumant Rao

Vayu Purana I.50.7 “Waters lie within the earth and the earth is established over waters. The sky is above, the earth is below (it) and again waters are underneath.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, Edited by G.P Bhatt (Source)

Brahmanda Purana I.I.5.10 “On seeing that the earth had sunk into the water he thought- “What form shall I assume and uplift the earth?” [15] Assuming this inimitable form of a boar, Hari entered the nether worlds for uplifting the earth.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 3.13.31 “Lord Boar very easily took the earth on His tusks and got it out of the water. Thus He appeared very splendid. Then, His anger glowing like the Sudarśana wheel, He immediately killed the demon [Hiraṇyākṣa], although he tried to fight with the Lord.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Devi Bhagavatam 8.2.34-38 “…He came up from the Rasâtala and placed the earth on the waters. He then went away to His Vaikuntha abode…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)

Devi Bhagavatam 8.2.11-20 “The ocean was very much agitated with the fierce striking of the hairs of the Boar, when He entered into the waters, and spoke thus :– “O Deva ! O Thou, the destroyer of the afflictions of your refuges! Protect me.” Hearing the words of the ocean, the God Hari tore asunder all the aquatic animals and went down beneath the waters. Searching violently hither and thither, He knew the earth by her smell. At once the Bhagavân Hari, the Lord of all, went to Her and rescued the earth by raising Her up on his big teeth, the Earth that was the abode of all the beings. When the Bhagavân, the Lord of all the sacrifices, came up with the Earth on the top of His teeth, He looked beautiful like the elephant of a quarter taking out by the root and holding a thousand petalled lotus upon his tusks.” Tr. Swami Vijnananada (Source)

Vishnu Purana 1.4.45-48 “The supreme being thus eulogized, upholding the earth, raised it quickly, and placed it on the summit of the ocean, where it floats like a mighty vessel, and from its expansive surface does not sink beneath the waters. Then, having levelled the earth, the great eternal deity divided it into portions, by mountains…” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Harivamsa Purana 1.40.6 “We have heard that sage Krishna-dwaipAyana described this great boar incarnation before the twice-born ones when they assembled at a sacrifice, and detailed as to how that enemy-eradicator, Vishnu, incarnating himself as a boar, saved the earth sunk in the ocean with his tusks; now I would like to hear at length the various deeds performed by the intelligent slayer of enemies hari in his incarnation of boar.” Tr. Desiraju Hanumanta Rao

Those who attempt to assign a metaphorical meaning to “water” should read the following verses, which clearly refute such claims.

Vayu Purana I.6.10-27 “Observing that the earth was overflowed with waters on all sides, (he thought to himself), “Oh, what great form should I assume and uplift the earth”? He thought of the form of a Boar charmingly comfortable in sporting about in waters…It had a girth of ten and a height of a hundred Yojanas. It resembled a dark blue cloud in complexion. It grunted like the rumbling of thunder-clouds…Assuming this large immeasurable form of a boar, Visnu entered the nether regions in order to lift up the earth…. [25-27] Holding the Earth in his hands he brought it to its place. The supporter of the Earth at first mentally supported the earth and then released it. Over the flood of waters, the Earth floated like an immense boat. Due to the activities of the lord, it did not sink. With a desire to set up the universe, the lord lifted up the Earth. Then, he, the lotus-eyed lord, decided to divide the Earth. He levelled the Earth and created the mountains on it.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

.

Distance between Planets

.

.

.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.15 “Situated 1,600,000 miles above Mars, or 10,400,000 miles above earth, is the planet Jupiter, which travels through one sign of the zodiac within the period of a Parivatsara. If its movement is not curved, the planet Jupiter is very favourable to the brähmanas of the universe.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)  

.

Earth and Jupiter

According to the Purana, this distance is 10,400,000 miles.

According to modern science, the distance between Earth and Jupiter is not fixed, but it is approximately 365,000,000 miles at closest approach and can extend to about 601,000,000 miles at its farthest, depending on their orbital positions.

.

Mars and Jupiter

According to the Purana, this distance is 1,600,000 miles.

According to modern science, the distance between Mars and Jupiter is approximately 342,000,000 miles on average, varying significantly with orbital alignment.

.

.

.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.16 “Situated 1,600,000 miles above Jupiter, or 12,000,000 miles above earth, is the planet Saturn, which passes through one sign of the zodiac in thirty months and covers the entire zodiac circle in thirty Anuvatsaras. This planet is always very inauspicious for the universal situation.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)  

.

Earth and Saturn

According to the Purana, this distance is 12,000,000 miles above the Earth.

According to modern science, the distance between Earth and Saturn is not fixed, but it is approximately 746,000,000 miles at closest approach and can extend to about 1,000,000,000 miles at its farthest, depending on their orbital positions.

.

Jupiter and Saturn

According to the Purana, this distance is 1,600,000 miles above Jupiter.

According to modern science, the distance between Jupiter and Saturn is approximately 410,000,000 miles on average, varying significantly with their relative positions in their orbits.

.

.

.

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.22.17 “Situated 8,800,000 miles above Saturn, or 20,800,000 miles above earth, are the seven saintly sages, who are always thinking of the well- being of the inhabitants of the universe. They circumambulate the supreme abode of Lord Visnu, known as Dhruvaloka, the polestar.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

.

Earth and the Seven Sages (Saptarishi)

According to the Purana, this distance is 20,800,000 miles above the Earth.

According to modern science, the stars identified with the Saptarishi constellation, commonly associated with the Big Dipper, are not located at a single distance, but lie approximately 80 to 120 light years away, which equals roughly 470 trillion to 700 trillion miles.

.

Saturn and the Seven Sages

According to the Purana, this distance is 8,800,000 miles above Saturn.

According to modern science, Saturn orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 886,000,000 miles, while the stars of the Big Dipper are hundreds of trillions of miles farther away, making any direct planetary comparison meaningless within a scientific framework.

.

.

Planets move propelled by the rope of wind

Hinduism states that planets move due to wind, reflecting the belief that air exists in space.

Matsya Purana 128.14 “All these stars are tied to Dhruva: and they move on propelled by the wind. The Moon and the Sun move on in the celestial firmament, prompted by currents of strong wind. They glide on tied to the Dhruva. Their motions round the pole are brought about by these ropes made of wind.” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, Edited by B.D. Basu (Source)

Linga Purana I.57.7 “The stars and the luminaries, urged by the circular gusts of wind, move like fire brands. Since the wind bears the luminaries, it is called Pravaha.” Tr. Board of Scholars, Edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)

.

.

Wind starts from the Sun

Vayu Purana I.51.53 “The wind starts from the planet sun and traverses the entire stellar zone. At the end of the day it enters the sun encompassed by Dhruva.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

.

Sun and Moon dipping in Water

Vamana Purana 16.53 “Burnt by the fire of the eyes of Siva, the restless Surya immersed in the Asi and reaching Varuna, he had a dip in it as freely as he like.” Tr. Ananda Swarup Gupta

Rig Veda 7.55.7, Atharva Veda 4.5.1 “The Bull who hath a thousand horns, who rises up from out the sea…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Atharva Veda 13.2.4 “Victorious, inspired, and brightly shining, whom seven strong tawny-coloured coursers carry, Whom Atri lifted from the flood to heaven, thus men behold thee as thy course thou runnest.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Rig Veda 10.72.7 “When, O ye Gods, like Yatis, ye caused all existing things to grow, Then ye brought Sūrya forward who was lying hidden in the sea.” Tr. Ralph T.H. Griffith (Source)

Sayana commented on the above verse.

“When, O Gods, like Yatis (ascetics or those who control)—either controlling through rain or causing to go through raining—the Yatis are the clouds. Just as they fill the worlds with waters, in the same manner, you (the Gods) filled [the world] with your own splendors. Here, in the ocean, in the waters, you brought forth the Sun, which was hidden, for the purpose of its rising in the morning.” Sayana on Rig Veda 10.72.7

Kausitaki Brahmana 18.9 “Him who yonder gives heat they seek by these pressings to obtain; the rising by the morning pressing, (the sun) in the middle (of his course) by the midday pressing, (the sun) as he sets by the third pressing. He, having entered the waters, becomes Varuna.” Tr. Arthur Berriedale Keith (Source)

Aitareya Brahma Book 4, Chapter 20, verse 13 “…This (Aditya, the sun) is ‘the swan sitting in light’…he is ‘born from the waters’ (abja), for in the morning he comes out of the waters, and in the evening he enters the waters.” Tr. Martin Haug (Source)

Vishnu Purana 2.12.8-9 “whence the period is termed Amávásya. In that orbit the moon is immersed for a day and night in the water; thence it enters the branches and shoots of the trees; and thence goes to the sun.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)

Hinduism also states that the Sun enters fire while setting.

Vayu Purana I.50.112-3 “When the sun sets, the brilliance of the sun partially enters fire. Hence fire shines more brilliantly at night, even from a distance. When the sun rises again, the brilliance of fire enters the sun. The sun rises again, the brilliance of fire enters the sun. This together with the brillaince left in the sun at the time of sunset, makes it all the more brilliant. So the sun blazes during the day.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

.

How Solar Eclipse Occur

According to Vedic mythology, a solar eclipse occurs when a demon is believed to cover the Sun.

Rig Veda 5.40.5-6 “O Sūrya, when the Asura’s descendant Svarbhanu, pierced thee through and through with darkness, All creatures looked like one who is bewildered, who knoweth not the place where he is standing. What time thou smotest down Svarbhanu’s magic that spread itself beneath the sky, O Indra, By his fourth sacred prayer Atri disoovered Sūrya concealed in gloom that stayed his function.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

According to the Puranas, a demon named Rahu, regarded as a star in Hindu cosmology, causes both solar and lunar eclipses.

Devi Bhagavatam 8.18.1-9 “…The Asura Râhu thus covers his rays. So the sphere of the Moon extends upto the twelve thousand Yoyanas. Râhu covers the field of the thirteen thousand Yoyanas. So he covers both the Sun and the Moon. Desire to take the vengeance of the previous enmity, he covers them during the time of Parva (the festivals). This planet wants to cover them from a distance. Hearing this, the Bhagavân Visnu hurls His Sudars’an Chakra against Râhu. This Chakra (disc) is encircled with the fiery flames and is very terrible. When all the quarters were filled with its violent flames, Râhu became instantly alarmed and fled away from the distance. O Devarsi! This is known as the eclipse known amongst the mortals…” Tr. Swami Vijananda (Source)

Srimad Bhagavatam 5.24.1-3 “Śrī Śukadeva Gosvāmī said: My dear King, some historians, the speakers of the Purāṇas, say that 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles] below the sun is the planet known as Rāhu, which moves like one of the stars. The presiding deity of that planet, who is the son of Siṁhikā, is the most abominable of all asuras, but although he is completely unfit to assume the position of a demigod or planetary deity, he has achieved that position by the grace of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Later I shall speak further about him. Rāhu tried to create dissension between the sun and moon by interposing himself between them. Rāhu is inimical toward both the sun and the moon, and therefore he always tries to cover the sunshine and moonshine on the dark-moon day and full-moon night…After hearing from the sun and moon demigods about Rāhu’s attack, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu, engages His disc, known as the Sudarśana cakra, to protect them. The Sudarśana cakra is the Lord’s most beloved devotee and is favored by the Lord. The intense heat of its effulgence, meant for killing non-Vaiṣṇavas, is unbearable to Rāhu, and he therefore flees in fear of it. During the time Rāhu disturbs the sun or moon, there occurs what people commonly know as an eclipse.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

Swami Prabhupada commented on above verses,

“As stated herein, the sun extends for 10,000 yojanas, and the moon extends for twice that, or 20,000 yojanas. The word dvādaśa should be understood to mean twice as much as ten, or twenty. In the opinion of Vijayadhvaja, the extent of Rāhu should be twice that of the moon, or 40,000 yojanas. However to reconcile this apparent contradiction to the text of the Bhāgavatam, Vijayadhvaja cites the following quotation concerning Rāhu; rāhu-soma-ravīṇāṁ tu maṇḍalā dvi-guṇoktitām. This means that Rāhu is twice as large as the moon, which is twice as large as the sun. This is the conclusion of the commentator Vijayadhvaja. The Supreme Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu, is always the protector of His devotees, who are also known as demigods. The controlling demigods are most obedient to Lord Viṣṇu, although they also want material sense enjoyment, and that is why they are called demigods, or almost godly. Although Rāhu attempts to attack both the sun and the moon, they are protected by Lord Viṣṇu. Being very afraid of Lord Viṣṇu’s cakra, Rāhu cannot stay in front of the sun or moon for more than a muhūrta (forty-eight minutes). The phenomenon that occurs when Rāhu blocks the light of the sun or moon is called an eclipse. The attempt of the scientists of this earth to go to the moon is as demoniac as Rāhu’s attack. Of course. their attempts will be failures because no one can enter the moon or sun so easily. Like the attack of Rāhu, such attempts will certainly be failures.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 5.24.2-3 link 1 , link 2

.

.

.

How Gold came on earth?

Modern science explains that Earth’s gold originated from collisions between dead stars, whereas Hinduism states that gold and silver appeared on Earth following the ejaculation of Shiva.

Srimad Bhagavatam 8.12.32-33 “Just as a maddened bull elephant follows a female elephant who is able to conceive pregnancy, Lord Śiva followed the beautiful woman and discharged semen, even though his discharge of semen never goes in vain. O King, wheresoever on the surface of the globe fell the semen of the great personality of Lord Śiva, mines of gold and silver later appeared.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)

.

.

How Mountains were Formed

.

These Puranic verses offer a scientifically absurd account of orogeny, claiming that mountains formed from molten debris solidified by wind and cold following a cosmic fire. By defining mountains as Achalas or “immovable,” the texts ignore the dynamic reality of plate tectonics, substituting geological processes with a primitive narrative of static solidification

.

Brahmanda Purana 1.2.7.9b-11 “As the previous creation was being burned formerly by the Samvartaka fire, the mountains of that period had been melted by that fire. They were then scattered by the wind. Due to chillness, they became solidified. Wherever the (molten rocks) were split there arose mountain. They are called Acalas (not-moving or immobile)…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)

.

Vayu Purana I.8.7-11 “On seeing the earth fully engulfed in waters, he entered the waters after assuming the form of a Boar. After lifting up the earth from the waters, he deposited the waters of the oceans in the oceans, of the rivers in the rivers and of the earth on the earth. Then he collected the mountains. When the previous creation was being burnt by the Samvartaka, fire of dissolution, the mountains lay destroyed and (scattered) all over the earth. In that one vast ocean, the (solidified) waters tossed by wind got collected together due to cold. Wherever they were (thus) stuck (heaped) together, there they became immovable. The mountains are called Acalas because they become motionless after being dried up and solidified…” Tr. G.V. Tagare, edited by G.P. Bhatt (Source)

.

.

What are the Stars?

.

According to Hindu texts, virtuous men become stars.

.

Black Yajur Veda 5.4.1.3 “…these are the lights of the sky; verily he wins them; the Naksatras are the lights of the doers of good deeds…” Tr. Arthur Berriedale Keith (Source)

.

Satapatha Brahmana 6:5:4:8 “May the divine women, with unclipped wings, dear to all the gods, bake thee, Aṅgiras-like, O fire-pan, in the lap of the earth!’ for of old the divine women, with unclipped wings, dear to all the gods, did bake it, like Aṅgiras, in the lap of the earth; and with their help he now bakes it. But, surely, these are the stars,–the women (gani) are indeed the stars, for these are the lights of those righteous men (gana) who go to the celestial world: it is by means of the stars that he thus bakes it.” Tr. Julius Eggeling (Source)

.

Sky/Heaven is Supported by Pillars

 

Yajur Veda 5.27 “Prop heaven, fill full the air, on earth stand firmly…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Swami Karpatri Maharaj.

Mahidhara commented on the above verse.

“…Regarding the text “Prop up the sky,” he raises it; [referencing Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra 8.5.33], ‘raising’ denotes establishing the post with the tip pointing upwards. These five sacrificial formulas (Yajus) are dedicated to the Udumbara post. “O Udumbara [post], prop up the sky.” Support the celestial realm; the meaning is: being upright, act so that it does not fall…” Mahidhara on Yajur Veda 5.27

.

Rig Veda 6.72.2 “O lords of resplendence and bliss, you bestow light to the dawns; you upraise the sun with his splendour; you prop up the sky with the supporting pillar of the firmament; you spread out the earth, the mother of all. Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Saraswati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Rig Veda 6.47.5 “This very same elixir of devotional love finds the wavy sea of brilliant colours in fore-front of the dawns, whose dwelling is in firmament. This might elixir sustains the heavens up with a mighty pillar, the sender of rains, the leader of the winds.” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Saraswati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Rig Veda 8.41.10 “In his successive functions, he emits his bright rays (during day) or turns them dark (during the night). He measures out the eternal abode, and supports with the pillar of the firmament, both heaven and the earth. May all our adversities vanish” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Saraswati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Rig Veda 1.160.4 “…He has given birth to the all-delighting heaven and earth, and has measured them both, and for the sake of holy rites He has propped them up with pillars which shall never decay.” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Sarasvati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Rig Veda 10.111.5 “…He spreads out the spacious heaven, and illumes it with the light of the sun. Best of proppers, he props up the heaven with a prop, a beam of support.” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Sarasvati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

 .

.

.

Sky/Heaven can Fall on Us

Rig Veda 2.17.5 “…He controls the earth that nourishes us all, and with his skill, stays the heaven from falling” Tr. Svami Satya Prakash Saraswati & Satyakam Vidyalankar (Source)

Following is the Hindi translation by Ram Sharma Acharya.

Sayana commented on the above verse,

“That Indra, through his might, stabilized the mountains which were moving and flying about here and there. By severing their wings, he made them firm upon the ground—meaning he rendered them immovable. Regarding the waters located within the clouds, he made their downward-flowing action possible. By cleaving the clouds, he caused the waters to fall upon the earth. Furthermore, he supported with strength the Earth, the nourisher of all (viśvadhāyasam). Through his creative wisdom (māyayā) and skillful means, he propped up the heaven (dyām) to prevent it from falling.” Sayana on Rig Veda 2.17.5

.

.

.

.

Sea length between India and Sri Lanka

The actual sea distance between India and Sri Lanka is about 11.3 miles, whereas the Valmiki Ramayana describes it as extending to 800 miles.

Valmiki Ramayana 5.51.15 “I am, however, an own son of wind-god and named as Hanuma. I came here even by crossing quickly the ocean, which is a hundred yojanas (or eight hundred miles) wide for the sake of Seetha and wishing to see her.” Tr. K.M.K. Murthy (Source)

.

Animals used to walk on two feet

Satapatha Brahmana 3.7.3.1-2 “There are both an animal and a sacrificial stake, for never do they immolate an animal without a stake. And as to why this is so:–well, animals did not at first submit thereto that they should become food, as they are now become food; for just as man here walks two-footed and erect, so did they walk two-footed and erect. Then the gods perceived that thunderbolt, to wit, the sacrificial stake; they raised it, and from fear thereof they (the animals) shrunk together and thus became four-footed, and thus became food, as they are now become food, for they submitted thereto: wherefore they immolate the animal only at a stake and never without a stake.”  Tr. Julius Eggeling (Source)

.

.

Unscientific Claims and Pseudoscientific Assertions by Hindu Scholars

.

Here are some unscientific claims made by Hindu scholars. Although some of these statements were mentioned earlier, they are repeated here to consolidate all relevant references in one place.

.

Swami Karpatri Maharaj

.

According to Swami Karpatri Maharaj, sun revolves around the earth and earth is stationary.

 

“In the observatories built in Ujjain, Varanasi, Delhi, and Jaipur, many instruments related to astronomy are installed. Through these, planets and constellations can be observed. With modern telescopes, all of these can be seen even more clearly. Through any of these instruments, the North Star (Dhruva) can also be seen. Since the time these observatories were constructed until now, the position of the North Star has remained clear in the same single location. This also proves that there is no motion of any kind in the North Star or the Earth. If there were motion in either of them, a change in the position of the North Star would certainly have occurred because of it.

Some people say that the axis of the Earth itself is known by the name ‘Dhruva’, but this statement is also not correct. The opinion of those who believe in the theory of the Earth’s rotation is that from the beginning of creation until today, the Sun has been shifting toward the ‘Lyra’ star and this Earth completes a full revolution of the Sun in one year. The Moon completes a revolution of this Earth in twenty-seven and a quarter days. Now, the point to be known is whether the North Star also revolves around the Sun along with the Earth? If this were accepted for a moment, then places like Kashi, which are situated to the south of the North Star, could at some point go to the north of the North Star due to the Earth’s rotation, but this never happens. This proves that this theory of the Earth’s rotation is completely wrong.

In the Goladhyaya of Siddhanta Shiromani, it is stated that the wind is mobile and the Earth is stationary (achala) by its very nature. It is stated that without anyone’s support, this Earth-globe stays in a fixed place in space by its own power. The meaning of the root ‘stha‘ is the cessation of motion. Only by considering the Earth to be stationary can there be a cessation of motion from it. In the Nighantu, one of the names of the Earth is ‘Go’. Its implication is that this Earth has gone very far, meaning it is very vast. All living beings walk on this Earth, therefore it is also called ‘Go’. Both these etymologies have been stated by the Niruktakara Yaska. While discussing the word ‘Go’ in the sense of the Sun, the Niruktakara states that the Sun is called ‘Go’ because it creates ‘rasas’ (essences/fluids) and moves by itself in the atmosphere. Some people, in order to propound the theory of the Earth’s rotation, derive the word ‘Go’ as ‘Gacchati iti Gauh‘, meaning that this Earth moves, but this derivation of theirs goes against many Vedic mantras. Phrases such as ‘Asthat Prithvi’ from the Atharvaveda mantras and a hymn of the Rigveda also establish only the stability of the Earth. There is not a single mantra among them in which the rotation of the Earth is mentioned.

Based on the Atharvaveda mantra ‘Varshena bhumih prithivi vritavrita’, some people claim that the Earth completes its revolution in one year. According to them, the theory of Earth’s rotation is consistent with the Vedas, but this statement of theirs is incorrect because they have not correctly understood the actual meaning of the mantra. The real meaning of the mantra is—on which Earth the night and day of dark and reddish colors exist, and which land is covered by rain from time to time, may this Earth through its productive nature always fulfill our dear desires. In this mantra, the feminine word ‘Varsha’ refers to the season, and the neuter word ‘Varsha’ refers to rain. This can be seen as evidence in the Amarakosha. In the Nirukta, it is also stated that rain covers the Earth. Thus, the interpretation that this Earth, enclosed by a period of one year, repeatedly moves on its axis is completely wrong. In this way, based on numerous logical arguments and also based on numerous Shruti statements, it is proven that the theory of considering the Earth to be migratory is a total delusion.” Swami Karpatri Maharaj, Vedarth Parijat, page 1299-1300, vol 2

.

.

“Swami Dayananda has attempted to prove the motion of the earth in his explanation of this mantra. However, this is contrary to the context (prakaran), because this mantra is prescribed for use in the worship (upasthana) of the Ahavaniya fire. According to the tradition of the Surya Siddhanta, the earth is considered to be ‘Sthir’ (stationary/static). Therefore, it has been given the name ‘Achala’ (the immovable one).

Consequently, the interpretations provided by commentators such as Mahidhar, Uvvat, and Sayana are the only appropriate ones. Thus, it is the motion of the Sun that is proven, not that of the earth. The Lord in the form of the Veda clearly declares:

“Hiranmayena savita rathena devo yati bhuvanani pashyan“. (Translation: The luminous Lord Savita [the Sun] moves through the worlds in his golden chariot, beholding all creatures.)” Swami Karpatri Maharaj in his commentary on Yajur Veda 3.6

.

.

Swami Karpatri Maharaj’s arguments against motion of the earth.

.

“Statements such as ‘bhramati bhramasthiteva’, ‘bhaved bhume’, and ‘yadi cha bhramati’ refute the theory of the Earth’s rotation. Their implication is that if one assumes that while it appears through illusion that the Earth is stationary, the reality is different—similar to how a boat on river water appears stationary while moving, or how stars do not move like plants and trees—then such an assumption leads to several fallacies. If the Earth were considered to be in motion, a falcon that leaves its nest in the morning would be unable to return to its home in the evening; by then, due to its constant motion, the Earth would have moved far away. A falcon can only return to its nest if the Earth remains stationary in one place. A second fallacy is that if the Earth moves toward the east, then due to its velocity, flags and similar objects should always face the west. However, this is not the case; flags flutter sometimes toward the west and sometimes toward the east. Furthermore, if the Earth’s motion were assumed to be very slow, how could it complete a full rotation in a single day and night? Similarly, arrows shot into the sky should always fall toward the west, and clouds should also always fly toward the west. Since none of this occurs, it is proven that the Earth does not move.

The diameter of the Earth is measured at twelve and a half thousand kosh. If one were to accept the Earth as rotating, it would have to be like a wooden ball or a potter’s wheel spinning at great speed. When a motorcar or a train runs fast, the air generated by its motion rushes in the opposite direction with equal speed. According to calculations, the Earth’s speed is considered to be 1,041 miles per hour and 17 miles per minute. Thus, for an Earth with a diameter of 25,000 miles moving at a speed of 1,041 miles per hour, a terrifying atmospheric whirlwind should be produced. Because of this, a violent hurricane would constantly rise upon the Earth every moment, yet such an experience does not occur. This also proves the theory of the Earth’s rotation to be erroneous. Accepting such a theory would also result in the fallacy mentioned above: that in such a situation, the movement of flags and clouds would always be in a direction opposite to the Earth’s motion.” Swami Karpatri, Vedarth Parijata, page 1295, vol 2

.

.

.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Arya Samaj founder Swami Dayanand’s views on why the Sky looks blue and also how rain occurs.

”6. Is it not ether, then, that you see in the sky above, blue and dusty?
A.- No.
Q.- What is it then?
A. It is the fine particles of earth, water and Agni (in the atmosphere). The blue colour is  mainly due to the particles of water in the atmosphere that come down as rain, while the dusty appearance is due to the particles of dust which is carried up from the earth and floats about the air. It is these things that are seen and reflected in water in a mirror, and not ether.”- Satyarth Prakash, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ch 9, Tr. Chiranjiva Bhardwaja (Source)

.

Swami Dayanand further claimed, citing the Satapatha Brahmana, that both the Sun and the Moon are inhabited by humans.

“39. What are the sun, the moon and the stars?
Q. Are they inhabited by man and other living creatures or not?
A. They are worlds inhabited by men and other living beings, The Shatpatha Braahman:, , . says., “The earth, the water, the heated bodies, the space, the moon, the sun, and other planets are all called Vasus or abodes, because they are abodes of living beings as well as of inanimate objects.” When the sun, the moon and other planets are abodes like our earth, what doubt can there be in their being inhabited? When this little earth of God is full of men and other living beings, can it ever be possible that all other worlds are void? How can myriads of other worlds be of any use unless they are inhabited by man and other beings? It follows, therefore, that they are inhabited.” Satyarth Prakash, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ch 8, p.271, Tr. Chiranjiva Bhardwaja (Source)

.

His argument is based on Satapatha Brahmana 11.6.3.6 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.9.3.

.

.

Swami Prabhupada

.

Swami Prabhupada, the founder of ISKCON, stated that the Moon is farther from the Earth than the Sun and also regarded the Moon landing as a hoax.

“Another my challenge is that moon is beyond the sun. First planet is sun, and then moon. So if the sun is 93,000,000 miles and moon is above the sun 1,600,000, then how they can go to the moon planet in four days? It requires seven and a half months. That is my challenge.”
Room Conversation with Svarupa Damodara January 30, 1977, Bhuvanesvara Source

.

Swami Prabhupada asserts that, like the Sun, the Moon must also be full of flames to account for its illumination, though these flames are described as mild and pleasing. He rejects the modern scientific view of the Moon as a dusty, inert body and instead bases his explanation on Srimad Bhagavatam and traditional commentary.

“From the descriptions in this verse, we can make an educated guess about the nature of the flames on the moon. Like the sun, the moon must also be full of flames because without flames there cannot be illumination. The flames on the moon, however, unlike those on the sun, must be mild and pleasing. This is our conviction. The modern theory that the moon is full of dust is not accepted in the verses of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam. In regard to this verse, Śrīla Viśvanātha Cakravartī Ṭhākura says, suśaṣpāṇi sukomala-śikhās teṣāṁ rociṣā: the kuśa grass illuminates all directions, but its flames are very mild and pleasing. This gives some idea of the flames existing on the moon.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 5.20.13 (Source)

.

Swami Prabhupada claimed that Shesha (snake) is holding up the universe in his commentary on Srimad Bhagavatam 5.17.21. (Source)

.

Swami Prabhupada on the basis of Hindu scriptures said that mountains used to fly,
“In many descriptions in Vedic literature it is found that mountains also fly in the sky with wings. When such mountains are dead, they fall to the ground, where they stay as very large dead bodies.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 8.11.12 (Source)

.

.

Sayana

.

“That Indra, through his might, stabilized the mountains which were moving and flying about here and there. By severing their wings, he made them firm upon the ground—meaning he rendered them immovable. Regarding the waters located within the clouds, he made their downward-flowing action possible. By cleaving the clouds, he caused the waters to fall upon the earth. Furthermore, he supported with strength the Earth, the nourisher of all (viśvadhāyasam). Through his creative wisdom (māyayā) and skillful means, he propped up the heaven (dyām) to prevent it from falling.” Sayana on Rig Veda 2.17.5

.

Sayana also said that Varaha (Vishnu’s boar avatar) is holding up the earth.

 

“O Earth! In the beginning, at the time of the elevation of the land that had undergone cosmic dissolution by the glorious Varaha, [you were] this small; this ritual action is performative, intended to mimic a measurement of merely a span (prādeśa). While being attached to the tusk of the Boar, you were as if limited to the dimension of a single span…” Sayana on Yajur Veda 37.5

.

.

Baba Ramdev

Baba Ramdev claimed that, “the whole universe is filled with oxygen.” (Source)

.

Ramdev has also claimed that placing a Tulsi leaf on a mobile phone prevents harmful radiation, “Put tulsi leaves in your phone cover, and you will be protected from the radiation it emits.” He also claimed that tulsi “kills” (Source)

.

Ramdev claimed that, “The human body is designed to live for 400 years, but we torture our bodies through excesses of food and lifestyle. We invite high blood pressure, heart ailments and other diseases that lessen its life span and makes it depend on doctors and medicines for the rest of our lives,” (Source)

.

.

Sadhguru

.

“Water has intrinsic memory”, claimed Sadhguru. Source link 1, link 2.

.

.

Others

.

How Peahen gets Pregnant?

Hindu scholar Jaya Kishori has claimed that a peahen becomes pregnant by swallowing the teardrops of a peacock, a belief that is also shared by several other Hindu scholars, including Swami Shiv Baba, despite having no biological or scientific basis.

“Peacock is even today considered the National Bird of India. Why is it considered so? Why is not any other bird taken as the example. Any other bird could have been chosen as the national bird. Because, all other birds procreate by sexual contact. Only Peacock (male) is such an unusual bird. That the peahen (morni ) swallows the tear drops of the Peacock ( mor ) dancing in stately courtship around her. Then the peahen becomes pregnant. It shows that even today the example of such a bird prevails in this creation. And that same bird is considered as the National Bird of India.” (Source)

.

Swami Udit Chaitanya from Kerala claimed, “The cow’s horns can absorb radioactivity. The horns can control sound waves and remove harmful magnetic waves from the atmosphere (he recommends a radio experiment to prove this with appropriate sound effects). Cow dung contains plutonium. The swami says that the government is not valuing cow dung at all and can actually use the plutonium in atomic power plants. “I prepared cow urine in my ashram, had it, and got rid of my asthma without any Allopathic medicine.” (Source)

.

An Indian scientist named Bhaskaracharya (1114-1185) writes,

”As heat is an inherent property of the Sun and of Fire, as cold of the Moon, fluidity of water, and hardness of stones, and as the air is volatile, so the earth is naturally immovable. For oh! the properties existing on things are wonderful.”-Siddhanta Shiromani Goladhyaaya of Bhaskaracharya, Bhuvankosh, Shloka 5

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.