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Image Source: TheHindu.Com

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By Sulaiman Razvi
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Women have long been suppressed within the patriarchal structure of Indian society. Hinduism has played a central role in shaping and legitimizing many practices that disadvantaged women, and several oppressive customs emerged within this religious framework. According to a survey by Thomson Reuters, India was ranked as the most dangerous country in the world for women. Instant desertion of wives is reportedly higher among Hindus, which contributes to a lower formal divorce rate, as separation often results in abandonment rather than legal divorce. Marital rape is not fully criminalized in India, and under the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, mothers have historically not enjoyed equal guardianship rights.

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Hindu women have been subjected to numerous oppressive practices such as Sati Pratha, the imposition of taxes on lower caste women for covering their breasts, and the Devadasi system. Although many of these practices have been outlawed by the government, some continue in certain regions despite legal prohibition. Apologists of Indian culture often dismiss these issues. When confronted with Sati, they argue that it was an ancient practice banned long ago and therefore not worth discussing. Yet there is little willingness to engage with ongoing practices such as the Devadasi system, Maitri Karar, Nata Pratha, and restrictions on women’s entry into temples.

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Female Foeticide

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To begin with, let us examine the rates of female infanticide. Female infanticide is highest among Hindus in India, yet it is rarely acknowledged as a Hindu problem and is instead framed broadly as a social issue or merely a problem within Indian society.

– Result of India’s Son Preference: 21 Million ‘Unwanted’ Girls, 63 Million ‘Missing’ Women, Says Economic Survey
(Source: News18)

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– Among Hindus, who make up nearly 80% of India’s population, the child sex ratio declined from 925 in 2001 to 913 in the latest Census data. This is the biggest decline — of 12 points — among all religious communities and a chilling reminder for the continuing need for much more robust action to save the girl child.” (Source: TimesofIndia)

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– Among other communities, there were 958 Christian girls against 1,000 boys, 913 Hindu girls against 1,000 boys, 943 Muslim girls against 1,000 boys and 933 Buddhist girls against 1,000 boys.

As per 2001 census, the child sex ratio among Hindu was 925 girls against 1,000 boys, Muslims 950 girls, Christians 964 girls, Sikhs 786 girls, Buddhists 942 girls and Jains 870 girls against 1,000 boys.” (Source: DNAIndia)

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– Decades of sex determination tests followed by female foeticide have finally caught up with Punjab and Haryana,” said a sociologist in the shared state capital Chandigarh.

The situation will worsen as sex ratios dip further over the next decade, she added. In Fatehgarh Sahib district, 200 miles north of Delhi, for instance, the present male-female ratio is among India’s lowest – 754 girls for 1,000 boys. Some villages in the region dominated by Jat Sikh farmers have only 550-600 girls per 1000 males and the disparity is growing. (Source: Telegraph)

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– India looses millions of unborn female baby every year,
(Source: Telegraph)

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– 10 million foetuses aborted in India (Sources: TheGuardian | TheHindu | ZeeNews)

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– In 1991 and 2001, Muslims and Hindus had virtually similar female-male ratios, with the former consistently at a slight advantage. Sikhs trailed far behind. But in 2011 Muslims have shown a marked improvement.

In a decade, their female-male ratio has leaped from 936 to 951 women for every 1000 Muslim men. But in the same period, the Hindu ratio only rose from 931 to 939. The gender gap between the two communities has widened.”

The government has yet to release the latest religion-specific child sex ratios. In 2001, it was 950 for Muslims, which is considered to be more or less ‘normal’. But it was significantly lower for Hindus due to entrenched gender discrimination, especially blatant sex selective abortion.”

So, in all likelihood in this round too, Muslim child sex ratios are expected to be better than Hindus. Perhaps significantly better, despite setbacks in Jammu and Kashmir. But the number of “missing women” among Hindus is likely to be alarming.”

Rich states like Haryana and Punjab fare the worst in child sex ratios, especially due to sex-selective abortions. But, across the border in Pakistan’s Punjab province despite lower female literacy, more girls are born and survive childhood. Religion is an important difference across the two sides of the Punjab border.”

Across the majority of Indian states, too, Muslims have overall higher female-male ratios despite lower socio-economic development and literacy. One argument is that in larger Muslim families perhaps there is lesser pressure for sex selection.”

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Around 7 million girls in India go missing every decade due to skewed sex-ratio
(DeccanChronicle)

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Maitri Karar

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Maitri Karar allows married men in Gujarat to enter into “friendship deeds,” enabling them to live with women other than their wives. In this arrangement, the woman is effectively treated as a mistress or concubine. What is even more shocking is that this practice has received legal backing.

– In Gujarat, there is a social tradition that is used to circumvent the provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act by men so they can “have another woman” in their lives. Hindu Marriage Act only allows one wife. Polygamy is a punishable offense.

In Gujarat a system prevailed in which a man and a woman entered into a friendship agreement, a legitimate contract before a magistrate. It had a social and legal sanction and was popularly known as “maitri karar”. Later this practice was converted into a “service agreement”, according to which the man would keep the woman of his choice in his house as a helper or a maid servant. Not surprisingly, this contract, too, had a legal and social legitimacy. It is well known that this practice was followed by many Ministers and senior bureaucrats.

As per some figures 29,951 cases of ‘Maitri Karar‘ (Friendship Contract) are registered in the District Collectors office in Ahmedabad.” (Source)

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– No cumbersome divorce proceedings, people of Ahmedabad opt for Maitri Karar Contract:

Examples of similar liaisons abound throughout Ahmedabad. Rather than initiate or wait for cumbersome divorce proceedings to be decided, people of Ahmedabad are opting for a contract known as maitri karar (friendship contract). The document is in fact little more than a promise of friendship and companionship between a man and a woman at least one of whom is already married. In addition, a maitri karar invariably includes an undertaking by the man that he will look after and financially support his partner. (Source: IndiaToday)

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– College girl gets court nod for ‘live-in’ with married man

Ahmedabad, Thu Jun 28 2012

A metropolitan court recently allowed a 20-year-old woman to unite with her live-in mate from the same tribe, releasing her from a women’s protection home where she was kept against her wishes.

Neha Patani, a resident of Saraspur and in her first year of college, had eloped with Sanjay Kumar Patani, an auto-rickshaw driver, three months ago. Sanjay was already married and has four children.
Sanjay and Neha had signed a “live-in contract” (maitri karar) before they started living together.(Source: IndianExpress)

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Friends and lovers

When religion came in the way, a court opened a rarely used door. This is how a Gujarat love story found a Gujarat solution.

It was then that they began looking at legal options. He says he approached a lawyer friend, who consulted other legal experts, who advised them to opt for maitri karar as they could not legally marry. (Source: IndianExpress)

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Women in the uniform civil code debate

The upper-caste Gujarati version of bigamy is called maitri karar, meaning friendship document. Saying that people in Ahmedabad were “opting for it”, a 2013 report in India Today described it thus: “The document is in fact little more than a promise of friendship and companionship between a man and a woman at least one of whom is already married. In addition, a maitri karar invariably includes an undertaking by the man that he will look after and financially support his partner.

“Each agreement is tailor-made to suit the particular needs of the individuals who make it, but there are a number of common features. Every agreement puts down in detail the backgrounds and marital status of the lovers, and both parties state that they know the other’s antecedents and have opted for the relationship out of free will. Some karars are even specific about the amount the man will pay for the upkeep of his partner. Some agreements even succeed in reflecting the nature of the relationship between the signatories.” (Source: Livemint)

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Incident of Maitri Karar used on a rape survivor

“The Dafers who kidnapped me had got my thumb impression on a paper to claim marriage or ‘maitri karar’ through a notary. The notary has not been named in the complaint. A tantrik also performed some ritual pronouncing me a Dafer wife. I told the police about the tantrik but he too has not been named as an accused by the police,” said the survivor. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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Regional practices of Maitri Karar

It’s not just Gujarat where Maitri Karar is practiced; the concept of a live-in relationship despite being married to another woman exists in many states.

Rajasthan: After 48 years, an Udaipur man marries his live-in partner

Devadas Kalasua, son of Deetaram, though already married, had eloped with Magdu Bai from a neighbouring village and brought her to his home where he lived with his first wife Champa Bai and children. Later, Champa Bai shifted to Phalasiya to live with her sons, while Devadas continued to live with Magdu Bai at his ancestral home. However, both the wives were tolerant and were on talking terms. (Source: TimesofIndia)

Madhya Pradesh: Lok Adalat orders Basant Mahulal to spend equal time with his wife and live-in partner (Sources: TheHindu | NavbharatTimes)

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Polygamy

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While polygamy for Hindus is prohibited under the Hindu Marriage Act and is often portrayed as heinous, especially when used to criticize Muslims, the incidence of polygamy in India has at times been reported as higher among Hindus than among Muslims despite its illegality. As a result, some Hindu men resort to other means, such as converting to Islam to marry additional women, practicing Maitri Karar or Nata Pratha to have another woman in their lives, or engaging in bigamy without formally adopting these practices. Such relationships in India include contemporary polyandry in Punjab and Haryana, the Nata Pratha in Rajasthan, and Maitri Karar in Gujarat. Many of these practices, whether traditional or modern, involve forms of male bigamy. The following graphs show the incidence of polygamy among various religious communities in India. The first graph is taken from Scroll.in, and the second one has been prepared by me..

For more information go through the article Polygamy in Hindu Dharma

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Polygamy data

(Sources: Scroll.in | TimesofIndia)

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Goa allows ‘Limited Polygamy’ for Hindu men

Goa allows “limited polygamy” for Hindu men under specific conditions. Article 3 of the Family Laws of Goa states:

“However, the marriage contracted by a male Gentile Hindu by simultaneous polygamy shall not produce civil effects; except in the following cases only (1) Absolute absence of issues by the wife of the previous marriage until she attains the age of 25 years. (2) Absolute absence of male issue, the previous wife having completed 30 years of age, and being of lower age, ten years having elapsed from the last pregnancy; (3) Separation on any legal grounds when proceeding from the wife and there being no male issue, (4) Dissolution of the previous marriage as provided for in Article 5.” — Source: Family Laws of Goa, Vol 1 by MS Usgaoncar. (Source: Scroll.in)

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Indian men marry ‘water wives’ in drought-stricken villages to survive heatwaves and water shortages

Indian men in drought-stricken villages are marrying multiple women to fetch drinking water for their households. Villagers in Denganmal, western India, rely on two wells for drinking water, but the sweltering walk and wait at the crowded spots can take hours. The answer? A “water wife,” villagers told Reuters.

Polygamy is outlawed in India, but “water wives” have become the norm in Denganmal as India faces the threat of another drought this year. Sakharam Bhagat, 66, now has three wives, two of whom he married just to ensure his family had enough water to drink and cook with.

“I had to have someone to bring us water, and marrying again was the only option,” Bhagat, who works as a day laborer on a nearby farm, told Reuters on Thursday. “My first wife was busy with the kids. When my second wife fell sick and was unable to fetch water, I married a third.” (Source: IBTimes)

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Legal tactics used to bypass polygamy prohibitions

Another tactic used by some Hindus to have more than one spouse involves exploiting legal loopholes, as the Hindu Marriage Act prohibits having more than one wife at a time. Some convert to Islam to facilitate multiple marriages. Others, after marrying a second time, argue that the first marriage was not solemnized because certain ceremonies required by Hindu law were not duly performed.

When a Hindu man marries a second wife, the first wife often lodges a criminal case against him for polygamy. In many cases, the court rejects the case based on minor legal technicalities, allowing the culprit to elude punishment.

Polyandry

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Polyandry is not prevalent on a large scale, but several Hindu tribal communities in parts of India still practice it.

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The wife married to five brothers: Rajo, 21, follows a tradition in Indian villages that allows families to hold on to their farmland

Rajo Verma, 21, lives in one room with the siblings in Northern India. The young wife spends each night with a different brother in turn. She does not know which of the siblings is the father of her young son. Fraternal polyandry is a tradition in the small village near Dehradun. The ancient Hindu tradition of polyandry was once widely practiced in India, but it is now only observed by a minority. (Source: DailyMail)

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Sharing a wife to save land

It may seem incongruous in the 21st century, but polyandry—an ancient tribal custom in the remote Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh—still thrives. The reasons are largely related to ancestral land holdings.

With four common offspring, they eke out their living mainly from the four bighas of land they inherited. “Had we married separately, our family would have spread but the land would have shrunk. Having a common wife has saved us from penury,” says Namgayal.

The extreme form of fraternal polyandry, in which four to five siblings have a common wife, is now mainly confined to the remote interiors of the Pooh and Yangthang areas of upper Kinnaur; however, elsewhere the practice has evolved into a more practical equation of two brothers sharing a spouse. (Source: IndiaToday)

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One bride for two brothers: A custom fades in India

Buddhi Devi was 14 when she was betrothed. In India, that is not unusual, as many marry young. Her intended was a boy from her village who was two years younger—that, too, was not strange. But she was also supposed to marry her future husband’s younger brother once he was old enough. Ms. Devi is a ghost of another time, one of a shrinking handful of people who still live in families here that follow the ancient practice of polyandry.

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In this village in Rajasthan, wives are being ‘shared’ within families to save land

(Source: YouthKiAwaaz)

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The tradition of ‘Draupadi’ in the land of Shiva: Many husbands, one wife

The layman identifies it with Draupadi, the heroine of Ved Vyas’ Mahabharata, who was married to the five Pandava brothers. In Kinnaur, it is said that songs of bereavement and separation are sung by women only with the permission of the gods. That is because women here are not even given the time to mourn the death of a spouse. Times have changed, and with them many traditions, but polyandry continues to be practiced. Many families here have a single wife for four or five brothers. (Source: DailyBhaskar)

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Women forced to sleep with their husbands’ brothers: A shortage of girls leads to wife-sharing

“Some families buy brides from other parts of the country, while others have one daughter-in-law living with many unwedded brothers.”

Women from other regions, such as the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal, speak of how their poor families were paid sums as low as 15,000 rupees (£190) by middlemen and brought here to wed into a different culture, language, and way of life. (Source: DailyMail)

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Nata Pratha (Wife Selling)

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‘Nata Pratha’ is a traditional system in Rajasthan under which a married woman may leave her husband and go with another man in exchange for money paid by the second man to her husband or his family. Practiced in parts of Rajasthan, Nata Pratha effectively allows a man to sell his wife.

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The bride price: Men from backward communities in Rajasthan buy and sell their wives with impunity

(Source: IndiaToday)

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Children are the most vulnerable to abuse due to ‘Nata Pratha’

A report prepared by the NGO Vaghdhara, in association with Unicef, states that 2% of the 3.5 million tribal children in the 4–14 age group have been impacted by the ‘Nata’ practice. Historical accounts state that the practice of living with another person if a spouse is unhappy or if one of them dies has been prevalent for the last couple of centuries.

The person who undergoes Nata can live with another person of his or her choice without being married as many times as they want. The main findings are that the majority of mothers who entered a ‘Nata’ marriage either never tried or were not allowed to maintain contact with their children.

“Thirty-eight percent of abandoned children covered under the study are subjected to exploitation in terms of household chores or have been beaten. Around 13% of the children have to face humiliation in schools and society at large,” said the report. It didn’t stop there; 6% of them reportedly faced verbal and physical abuse. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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Tribal children bear the brunt of Nata Pratha in Rajasthan: Study

Children face humiliation at school if their mother has gone to another man under the ancient practice called Nata Pratha, and most of them do not have friends to share their feelings with, a study by an NGO in south Rajasthan has found.

The study—which was released at a state-level consultation on “ensuring protecting rights of tribal children in Rajasthan”—said 13% of children face humiliation at schools because of Nata in their family, and 6% of them face verbal and physical abuse. Twenty-two percent of children reported that they see violence in families in daily life after a Nata relation, the study found. (Source: HindustanTimes)

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To move in with a married woman, a ward panch marries a 6-year-old

Nata Pratha, a custom prevalent in parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh, allows a man to have a live-in relationship with a married woman. (Source: IndianExpress)

An ancient local custom, Nata Pratha dictates that any married man can have an affair with a married woman if he provides financial compensation; however, both lovers must be wed. Because Ratan Lal Jat was single, he married a six-year-old girl in order to comply with the age-old tradition. (Source: MetroUK)

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In the name of Nata Pratha (नाता प्रथा की आड़ में)

सुनील के पिता का काम अहमदाबाद में काफी दिनों से ठीक नही चल रहा था तथा आर्थिक तंगी काफी ज्यादा थी। आर्थिक तंगी से परेशान होकर अपनी पत्नी काली को तीन गांव दूर नाते भेज दिया था और काली के बदले में उसने अच्छे पैसे लिये थे।

प्रथा का दुरूपयोग आज के दौर में महिलाओं की तस्करी, दलाली अथवा महिलाओं की अदला-बदली में भी किया जा रहा है और इस कार्य में समुदाय स्तर के समाज के मुख्य प्रतिनिधियों द्वारा भी बढ़-चढ़ कर भाग लिया जाता है, जिनमें जाति पंच, वृद्धजन एवं आस-पास के गांव के व्यक्ति भी इसमें सम्मिलित होते है। (Source: Patrika)

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Towards oblivion

One day, the marriage agent takes Madanlal to Sita Bai’s place, where he discreetly sees her, and the agent demands Rs. 80,000 to fix the Nata. When Madanlal complains of the steep price, the broker dismisses him, saying he can find others happy to pay. Grudgingly, Madanlal agrees. A third of this goes to the broker, and the rest to Sita Bai’s parents. Sita Bai’s son cannot stay with her because Madanlal wants a son of his own. In this chain of events, Sita Bai has had no role to play.

Nata Pratha is a traditional practice whereby a man can refuse to stay in his present marriage and seek another woman by paying a specified monetary price—essentially “buying” her. The sum may range from a few thousands to several lakhs. The Jati Panch, an exclusive domain of men, sanctions these relations and excludes women from decision-making. In recent times, it has become a lucrative business involving local brokers and even the police.

(Source: TheHindu)

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Scarred by an ancient Rajasthan custom, abandoned kids find hope in a government scheme

Nata Pratha allows men to live with women they are not married to. Women who follow the regressive practice often leave their children behind with their marital families when they go off to another man. Bhanwari, an elderly woman, is raising seven children—three left by a mother following Nata and four left after her daughter was killed in a domestic dispute. (Source: HindustanTimes)

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Nata Pratha: A tradition that allows men and women to live with the person of their choice

This centuries-old custom is still alive in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. It is practiced by the Bhil tribe, one of the largest tribes in South Asia. (Source: TheCitizen)

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The agony of alliances

A socially accepted custom forces women in rural Rajasthan into a string of marriages approved by their families or even husbands for the “bride price” they receive from the new groom. (Source: IndiaToday)

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Similar customs exist in Madhya Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh village has a custom of renting a wife for Rs 10

Here, women are leased to wealthy businessmen by their own husbands. All they have to do is sign on Rs 10 stamp papers. After the contract ends, another deal is signed with a different man. In 2006, a man in Gujarat reportedly sold his wife to a rich businessman for a monthly rental of Rs 8,000. In some places, brokers charge up to Rs 70,000 from rich men but give only a fraction (Rs 15,000–20,000) to the tribal families. (Source: India.com)

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Atta Satta (Bride Exchange)

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A child and divorced

Meera Mali, age 13 and a Class V student in the village of Dabla Kachra, is one of the 370,000 children in her state and 2 million across the country who were married before the age of 14—too young to even remember the ceremony, if there was one.

Meera’s life was inextricably linked with that of her elder sister, Leela. When Leela married Narain Lal Mali, Meera was given in marriage to his younger brother, Bansi Lal Mali. However, a few years later, when Leela refused to return to her in-laws and settled down with another man named Laduji, Meera had to bear the brunt of her sister’s actions.

Laduji paid Rs 70,000 as compensation to Narain and “bought” Leela. In the process, Meera became a “leftover” girl before she even understood what marriage was, as her in-laws refused to accept her in retaliation for her sister’s actions.

Aptly enough, this traditional system is called atta-satta, meaning exchange. As a result, if one marriage breaks, the other alliance is automatically cancelled.

Maitra, from the village of Khera in Bhilwara, was married off in a similar fashion and for a similar purpose when she was only seven years old to 15-year-old Ram Pal. She was given in exchange for a bride for her aging uncle, Ram Saroop. For Saroop, this marriage was merely a ploy to end his unmarried status. He divorced his wife soon after the wedding, but in the process, Maitra was also divorced by Ram Pal.

According to Prayas, there are hundreds of instances of people like Gopal Mali who, after getting fed up with his wife—bought for Rs 11,000 and one-and-a-half kg of silver—left her to buy a divorcee he fancied for Rs 1 lakh. With rural societies blatantly accepting such norms, it is little wonder that children are being married while barely out of the cradle and getting divorced not much later. (Source: IndiaToday)

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Dowry

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Dowry, known as Dahej in Hindi, has been practiced in Hindu society for centuries. It is given by the bride’s parents and typically includes household items such as clothes, ornaments, electrical appliances, bedroom furniture, and other goods at the time of marriage. Ironically, like many other practices, dowry is not widely acknowledged as a Hindu problem but is instead framed as a broader social issue in Indian society. Although it may exist among other religious communities in India, often due to cultural influence, it is predominantly practiced among Hindus. Let us now examine the survey.

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Data on dowry deaths in India

“In an informal study of dowry deaths which reached the Supreme Court and the Bombay High Court, conducted by Majlis, Mumbai, over 95 per cent of these cases of dowry death were among Hindus.” (Source: BoomLive)

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Socio-demographic profile of dowry death victims

In the studied cases of alleged dowry deaths, Hindu women comprised an overwhelmingly large majority of victims. In one dataset, Hindu females accounted for approximately 87 percent of dowry death victims, while deaths among Muslims and Christians were comparatively much lower. (Source: ResearchGate)

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The Uniform Civil Code debate and community-specific data

“The problem of dowry-related violence and dowry deaths: There is no research conducted as to how many women who are murdered for dowry are Hindus. A research done by our organisation about cases which have reached the Supreme Court and the Bombay High Court revealed that more than 90 percent were Hindus. Less than 10 percent were Muslims and others.” (Sources: Firstpost | Scroll.in)

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Historical context and the rise of “kitchen accidents”

“All over India, where Hindu wives traditionally burned on their husbands’ funeral pyres, brides in recent years have been dying in their husband’s homes in fires that were called ”accidents” until women’s organizations began to demand an official accounting.”

“Women’s organizations point to the seriousness of the situation. One, the Ahmedabad Women’s Action Group, in Gujarat state, says that research shows that 1,000 women may be burned alive annually in that state alone. Gujarat is the birthplace of Mohandas K. Gandhi.”

“Asked recently in Parliament to quantify this phenomenon, which began to draw attention about a decade ago when the number of deaths in fires reported as ”kitchen accidents” started rising in northern India, India’s Home Affairs Minister, Palaniappan Chidambaram, said that registered cases of dowry deaths nationwide numbered 999 in 1985, 1,319 in 1986 and 1,786 in 1987. Women’s groups say that total will be surpassed easily this year—and that in a country of 800 million people, most of whom do not report domestic violence, the real numbers are far higher.” (Source: NYTimes)

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Reports on the rising frequency of dowry deaths

Child marriage

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84% Of 12 Million Married Children Under 10 Are Hindus

(Graph Source: IndiaSpend)

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84 percent of 12 million married children under 10 are Hindus

Nearly 12 million Indian children were married before the age of 10 years – 84 per cent of them Hindu and 11 percent Muslim – reveals an IndiaSpend analysis of recently released census data. The data further reveals that 72 per cent of all Hindu girls married before 10 were in rural areas… (Sources: NewIndianExpress | Scroll.in)

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71% of those married in Uttar Pradesh are minor girls

Two million girls in Uttar Pradesh (UP) are married in the age group of 10-19 years, forming 71% of the total married people in this age group in the state. UP also has the highest number of children born to children, which stands at one million. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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High rates of sexual assault on children in India

In addition to child marriage, India also has a high rate of sexual assault on children.

According to the National Crime Records Bureau, a total of 12,363 cases of child rape were reported in the country during 2013, as compared to 8,541 in 2012, accounting for an increase of 44.7%. The maximum number of child rape cases was reported in Madhya Pradesh (2,112 cases), followed by Maharashtra (1,546 cases) and Uttar Pradesh (1,381 cases). These three states together accounted for 40.8% of the total child rape cases reported in the country. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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Two temple priests detained over child marriage

Two temple priests, who allegedly arranged the marriage of their minor son and daughter, were detained by the Hayathnagar police of Rachakonda on Friday.

Hayathnagar police said that Ramesh Kumar Sharma, working as a priest in a temple at Vemulawada, had agreed to give his daughter’s hand in marriage to the son of Anjaneya Sharma, a priest in a temple at Banjara Hills, a few weeks ago. The girl and boy were in ninth and tenth standards respectively. (Source: TheHindu)

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33 percent of the world’s child brides are Indian

At 103 million, the number of child marriages in India is more than the total population of the Philippines (100 million) and Germany (80.68 million), according to the report. (Source: NDTV)

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6.3% of girls between 15–19 years are pregnant or mothers in Rajasthan

According to the 2011 Census, 31.6 per cent of girls in Rajasthan were married before the age of 18. A more recent survey by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) 2015-16 pointed to an even higher number, with 35.4 percent of girls aged between 20 and 24 years getting married before attaining the legal age.

Rajasthan, which has the highest number of child marriage cases in the country, reported at least 366 divorcees between 10 and 14 years. The report also points out that there are 3,506 ‘widowed’ and 2,855 ‘separated’ children within the same age group. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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BJP Government stance on IPC section regarding marital sex with minors

The Union government wanted to retain the Indian Penal Code (IPC) section that allowed a man to have sex with his wife aged between 15 and 18. Marriage of minors is an old custom in India practiced by all social groups, the Home Ministry told the Women and Child Development Ministry. (Source: TheHindu)

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Suicide Highest among Women in India

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Analysis of suicide rates among women in India

“Last year a Lancet study estimated there were 187,000 suicides in India among over 15s in 2010, or three percent of all deaths recorded that year. It represented a more than 50,000 increase on official National Crime Records Bureau figures, attributed to under-reporting of cause of death possibly due to social concerns over what remains a taboo subject. Compare this with the 5,608 suicides that occurred in over 15s in the UK in 2010. India’s population is nearly 20 times that of the UK’s, meaning equivalent figures would set Indian suicides at about 112,000 — 75,000 less than the Lancet article’s estimates.”

“According to the study, 40 percent of those suicides among men and 56 percent among women occurred between the ages of 15 and 29, and rates were higher among well-educated young people in wealthier areas, suggesting economic strife is not the overriding cause behind the increase. This may instead correlate to social pressures surrounding issues of marriage at that time in life.”

“The escalating issue of sexual discrimination and the consequent violence towards women may also be a contributory factor. In response, the country’s parliament has just passed a new law to offer more protection for women and harsher penalties for their attackers. A sign of the kind of social taboo surrounding the issue was made clear with an inclusion in the law to make it a crime for police to refuse to open a case based on complaints by women about sexual attacks. ‘The main social determinants for suicide in women are interpersonal violence (for example, marital violence) and economic difficulties,’ Vikram Patel, Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow in Clinical Science and coauthor on the Lancet study, told Wired.co.uk.” (Source: WiredUK)

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Honour Killing

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Honour killings in India are reported to be highest among Hindus. The primary trigger is often inter caste marriage, and such opposition is rooted in traditional norms that have been justified through certain interpretations of Hindu scriptures.

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Caste pride, purity of women, and honour killings

“While up north, khap panchayats (kangaroo courts) held by dominant communities brazenly rule against inter-caste love marriages, in Tamil Nadu many cases of honour killings go unreported as the deaths are often passed off as suicides. The recent death of a 17-year-old caste Hindu girl, whose parents opposed her love affair with a Scheduled Caste youth in Ramanathapuram district indicates the serious proportions assumed by this under-reported social reality.”

“Mr. Sampath claimed that in the last three years the State had witnessed 98 honour killings, but most of these cases were “covered up” as suicides. Even if inter-caste marriages had the blessings of parents of the bride and groom, humiliations, social boycott and ostracisation force them either to break the marriage or encourage them to eliminate the newly married in the name of honour killing,” he contends. (Source: TheHindu)

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Additional reading on honour killings in India

Sati Pratha

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Sati Pratha refers to the immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre. Although it has been banned by the government and is not practiced as a mainstream custom among Hindus today, there have been isolated incidents of Sati reported in recent times.

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Recent reports of Sati attempts and incidents

Niyog Pratha

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For heir, Nikesh Giri forces wife to sleep with his father and a doctor

In a disturbing case from Ahmedabad, a man allegedly forced his wife to have sexual relations with his own father and a doctor in a desperate attempt to produce a male heir. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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Woman kills husband who forced her to sleep with her brother for a male child

Meena Devi allegedly killed her husband, Ram Vishal, after he pressured her to have sex with her own brother to conceive a male child. The incident highlights the extreme lengths to which some individuals go due to the obsession with male progeny. (Sources: HindustanTimes | TimesofIndia)

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Impotent man forces wife to have sex with several friends

An impotent man who wanted his wife to conceive allegedly forced her to have sex with several of his friends repeatedly over a period of two years. (Source: Mid-Day)

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Impotent man Brijesh makes sickening demands from wife

A man in Gujarat named Brijesh reportedly demanded that his wife have sex with his brother because he was impotent, leading to a cycle of torture when she refused. (Source: DailyBhaskar)

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Forced conception through friends in Moradabad

Reports indicate a case where an impotent husband forced his wife to have sex with his friends in an attempt to conceive children, leading to allegations of gang rape. (Source: Patrika)

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Husband demands wife get impregnated by any man

In another instance, an impotent husband reportedly demanded that his wife establish a relationship with any other man just so she could get impregnated and provide him with a child. (Source: DailyHunt)

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Husband arrested for pressuring wife to sleep with others

Police in Shahjahanpur arrested a man for allegedly pressuring his wife, Lalita, to sleep with other men. (Source: AajKiKhabar)

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Uttar Pradesh: Man kills wife for refusing to have sex with a tantric

In Agra, a man allegedly murdered his wife after she refused his demands to have sexual relations with a tantric (occultist). (Source: TimesofIndia)

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Devdasi

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One of the least discussed practices that is still prevalent and continues to devastate the lives of thousands of low caste Hindu women in India is the Devdasi system. Devdasi means “servant of god.” Traditionally, a Devdasi was dedicated to a temple and expected to perform ritual dances, but many were later forced into prostitution and subjected to sexual exploitation, often by dominant caste men. Although the Devdasi system has been banned by the government, temple based or so called sacred prostitution continues to persist in certain parts of India despite legal prohibitions.

Devadasi system persists in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh

According to a report by a one-man commission headed by Justice Raghunath Rao in 2015, there are 80,000 Devadasis in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. (Source: TimesofIndia)

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The continued existence of the system despite legal bans

Official figures cited in a recent book identify as many as 46,000 former Devadasis in Karnataka alone. These women reportedly receive a meager pension of only Rs 500 per month. (Source: TimesofIndia)

Furthermore, a 2011 report by The Guardian estimates that the National Commission for Women (NCW) recognizes approximately 48,358 Devadasis currently in India. (Source: TheGuardian)

In a separate report, The Hindu quoted the NCW stating there are 2.5 lakh (250,000) “Devadasi” girls dedicated to the Yellamma and Khandoba temples along the Maharashtra-Karnataka border. This figure includes 16,624 from Andhra Pradesh, 22,941 from Karnataka, and 2,479 from Maharashtra. The system remains prevalent across 10 districts of North Karnataka and 14 districts in Andhra Pradesh. (Source: TheHindu)

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Manifestations of the caste system and “In the Name of God”

The caste system within the Hindu religion has many manifestations. It has not only divided society into various layers of a graded hierarchy but has also created inhuman practices in the name of God. One of these is the Devadasi system, which is prevalent in different forms across India.

This cult exists even today with regional variances. Young girls are dedicated or “married” to an idol, deity, or temple rather than a mortal man. The rituals involved reflect a stark barbarism; the initiation often includes a “deflowering ceremony” (known as Uditambuvadu in some regions), where a priest has intercourse with the girl as a religious “duty.” A Marathi saying captures this reality: “Devadasi devachi bayako, sarya gavachi,” meaning “Servant of God, but wife of the whole town.”

Most Devadasis belong to the lowest castes. They must remain unmarried and often support themselves through ceremonial begging. After reaching puberty, they frequently become sexual servants to upper-caste men. Many eventually migrate to urban centers to join brothels as commercial sex workers. While states have enacted laws like the Bombay Devadasis Protection Act (1934) and the Karnataka Prohibition of Dedication Act (1982), the practice lives on, particularly in the “Devadasi belt” bordering Maharashtra and Karnataka. (Source: YouthKiAwaaz)

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Cycles of poverty and sex work

As recently as 2013, estimates put the total number of Devadasis at 450,000, with the majority located in Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh. (Source: HuffingtonPost)

How the caste system facilitates exploitation

In Karnataka alone, there are an estimated 100,000 Devadasis. When priests or upper-caste men sleep with them, they often claim they are appeasing the desires of a goddess. Approximately 5,000 to 10,000 girls enter this life of sexual subjugation every year. Data suggests that 90 percent of the daughters of sex workers in India eventually follow their mothers into the same profession, creating a generational cycle of exploitation. (Source: YouthKiAwaaz)

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National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) on temple abuse

The NHRC has characterized the ritual worship of virtually naked girls in certain South Indian temples as a form of abuse and slavery. These girls are forbidden from marrying and are forced to earn a living by dancing at Hindu temples. (Source: DeccanChronicle)

Further reporting on the Devadasi ritual

Women in Temple

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Violence and physical assault against women and children in temples

Wife Desertion

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The plight of abandoned wives in India

While political discourse often fixates on the immediate crisis of Triple Talaq, the systemic issue of spousal abandonment remains a far more pervasive yet neglected social catastrophe. The following excerpt highlights the disparate treatment of these two phenomena and the political figures involved:

“Unlike in the case of Triple Talaq within the Muslim community, where the wife might struggle for few months but eventually moves on with life by re-marrying, abandoned wives go through life-long suffering. Majority of the abandoned wives in India are from Hindu community with the numbers reaching as many as 2 million as per 2011 Census.

The Hindu community in India is notorious for abandoning the wives, as it’s extremely difficult for a Hindu man to obtain divorce in Indian Courts. Instead it is always easier to simply abandon the wife.

Modi had the option of going through a formal divorce within Indian Legal system but he choose to abandon his wife. Even today, his wife Jashodaben Modi continues to live alone and deserted. In an interview to NDTV, Mrs. Modi said “if he calls once, I will go with him”. Such is the desperation of abandoned wives, who even after being deserted for 43 years, hope that one day their husband will take them back and they will have a dignified life.

In recent times, Narendra Modi has projected himself to be the Messiah of Indian Muslim women who have gone through Triple Talaq, a Sunni Hanafi practice where husband can divorce his wife by uttering “Talaq” three times instantly. All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) has called for the social boycott of the men who divorce their wives via Triple Talaq. BJP on the other hand has repeatedly called for banning triple talaq.”

(Source: MeccaPost)

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Empirical Data: Marital Status by Religious Community (2011 Census)

An analysis of the C3 table (‘Marital Status by Religious Community and Sex’) from the 2011 Census reveals several striking findings that challenge common political narratives:

Category	Hindus	Muslims	Christians	Other Minorities
Staying in Marriage	86.2%	87.8%	83.7%	85.8%
Widowed Women	12.9%	11.1%	14.6%	13.3%
Separated/Abandoned	0.69%	0.67%	1.19%	0.68%
Divorced Women	0.22%	0.49%	0.47%	0.33%

Key Observations:

Widows

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The “City of Widows”: Abandonment and Institutional Neglect

The Supreme Court of India has frequently rebuked the government for its failure to provide even the most basic dignity to the thousands of widows concentrated in Mathura and Vrindavan. The following excerpts detail the scale of this abandonment:

“The apex court had also appointed a seven-member panel to collect data on their socio-economic conditions. A majority of the 1,000-odd widows interviewed earlier in Vrindavan by the NCW have children who do not care for them.”

“It had said an estimated 5,000-10,000 widows were living like beggars in ashrams dotting the two holy cities of Mathura and Vrindavan.” — Source: Hindustan Times

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“There are as many as 6,000 of them in this place alone and more in the surrounding countryside.”

“Some come as genuine pilgrims to devote their remaining years to the service of Radha/Krishna, but many others come here to escape from brutal family homes or have been flung out by their sons and daughters-in-law as unwanted baggage. This is one unusual aspect of Indian society that the government might prefer the outside world not to see, despite all their genuine efforts to solve the problem.” — Source: BBC News

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Socio-Religious Exclusion and the “Sin” of Survival

The plight of India’s estimated 40 million widows is exacerbated by deep-seated cultural taboos that equate widowhood with inauspiciousness. This critical commentary highlights the psychological and social warfare waged against these women:

“India has around 40 million widows, many of whom go to or are forced to go to homes or streets in holy cities to live out their lives in penance and prayer for the sin of outliving their husbands. Those who do not have to do this fare better but still live with many forms of social exclusion and needless judgment.

I have not heard of any other civilised country where widows are banished to certain areas to live lives of extreme deprivation and grief, with no possibility of a normal life again… Even in the more `elevated’ echelons of society, a widow is viewed with some disdain or pity, rarely as a human being who has suffered a great loss and deserving of getting on with her life in whatever way she sees fit.

The RSS, that repository of Indian culture, has actually had chiefs who have refused to allow widows the great honour of touching their feet as this was thought to be inauspicious. I would love to see the RSS take the lead in a campaign to give widows their lives back.” — Source: Hindustan Times Opinion

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Resources and Case Studies

For a more granular understanding of the individual lives behind these statistics, the following resources provide first-hand accounts and situational analyses:

Prostitution

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The Perna Community (Delhi/NCR)

In the name of tradition, women in Perna community forced into prostitution by husbands, in-laws

Just Outside Delhi, Girls In This Community Are Prostituted By Their In-Laws But They Don’t Complain

How Married Women And Mothers Are Pushed Into Sex Work In This Delhi Colony

The Indian caste where wives are forced into sex work

Unlike most other forms of sex work, Perna women are pushed into the trade by their husbands and in-laws after marriage. In many cases, the deal is struck even before the wedding. The community justifies this in the name of “tradition,” effectively turning the household into a site of trafficking. Sita belongs to the Perna caste, and among the women and girls of this acutely marginalised community, entering the sex trade is a usual next step after marriage and childbirth. (Sources: ZeeNews | ScoopWhoop | YouthKiAwaaz | AlJazeera)

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The Banchhada Community (Madhya Pradesh)

Banchhada, a community that celebrates birth of girls, but for flesh-trade

In Banchhada community of Madhya Pradesh, daughters, sisters are turned into prostitutes for money

The Banchhada community is notorious for a skewed sex ratio where female children are seen as the primary economic providers. “The total population of Banchhada community, which is spread over 75 villages in the three districts, is about 23,000, of which at least 65 per cent are women.” As given social sanction to prostitution, the people of Banchhada Community often find it auspicious when a girl is born thinking that she will basically be the provider of the family. (Sources: TimesofIndia | IndiaTimes)

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The Nat Community (Uttar Pradesh)

Nat Purwa: Where prostitution is a tradition

Women from the Nat community often become sex workers from a young age. This village near Lucknow has practiced hereditary prostitution for generations. Historically performers for feudal lords, the community turned to prostitution following the abolition of the zamindari system and the criminalization of their nomadic lifestyle. (Source: AlJazeera)

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The Bedia Community (Rajasthan/MP)

A Rajasthan village where prostitution is tradition

Sex as trade and tradition: For Bedia families, sex is a family business

Childhood for sale

Traditionally, Bedias and Nats were dancers. When the zamindari system was abolished, they lost their patrons. Over time, a number of Bedia women were compelled to take up prostitution for economic reasons and the men lived off their earnings. In Khakranagla, there are signs of a consumerist lifestyle—multi-storied houses and mobile phones—all funded by the trade. (Sources: TimesofIndia | IndiaToday | HinduBusinessLine)

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5. The Saraniya Community (Gujarat)

Prostitution is the norm among saraniyas of Wadia village due to poverty and gir

65 Wadia families to keep girls out of flesh trade

Inside the tiny village in Gujarat riven by the sex trade

Women of this village pimped by their kin

The nomadic Saraniyas of the Wadia village are so harassed by poverty that they have found no other option but to sell their bodies in prostitution for sustenance. Indeed, as girls grow up, their own family members find it hardly amiss to initiate them into flesh trade and it has well and truly become a tradition among them. (Sources: DailyBhaskar | TimesofIndia | NewStatesman | TimesofIndia)

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6. The Kanjar Community

Kanjar women all set to resume dancing in Mumbai bars again

In Rajasthan, age-old tradition sees young girls pushed into prostitution

Meet the girls who are born to be prostitutes

Young girls of the Kanjar community, a nomadic tribe in Rajasthan, are pushed into prostitution by none other than their parents before they attain adulthood. For many, Mumbai’s dance bars became an “escape route” from the more brutal village-level prostitution. Authorities are now taking up cudgels against this exploitative tradition, which includes customs where girls are sold or “borrowed” for fixed periods. (Sources: HinduBusinessLine | IndiaToday | TheStar)

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7. The Sansi Community

Sansi tribe socially sanctioned prostitution

The Sansi community has also socially sanctioned the age-old practice of prostitution. Bearing a “criminal tag” that has receded into silence, this tribe often finds itself isolated by social stigma, which reinforces the cycle of exploitation as one of the few available means of survival within their traditional social framework. (Source: IndianExpress)

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Summary Table of Hereditary Prostitution

Community	Region	Subheading Headline	Core Mechanism
Perna	Delhi/NCR	“Forced into prostitution by husbands”	Marital exploitation/In-laws as pimps.
Banchhada	Madhya Pradesh	“Celebrates birth of girls for flesh-trade”	Skewed gender ratio; girls as breadwinners.
Nat	Uttar Pradesh	“Where prostitution is a tradition”	Village-wide hereditary occupation.
Bedia	Rajasthan/MP	“Sex is a family business”	Unmarried sisters support the natal family.
Saraniya	Gujarat	“Prostitution is the norm… birth of girls celebrated”	Village economy (Wadia) dependent on trade.
Kanjar	Rajasthan/MP	“Resume dancing in Mumbai bars”	Transition from rural trade to urban performance.

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Bride Selling

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Bonded brides

Import of women to Haryana as brides from far-off regions outside the State is by now a known trend, but a recent study on the social status and rights of these women, usually referred as paro or molki (meaning purchased). The study conducted in Haryana’s Jind and Kurukshetra districts reveals that 66 per cent of the families practising bride trafficking are Jats, followed by 15 per cent Sainis, though the custom is prevalent among almost all other castes. (Source: The Hindu)

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Brides purchased, then exploited in Haryana, Punjab

Decades of unchecked sex-selective abortions have made the once fertile States of Punjab and Haryana suffer a drought of brides, making human-trafficking a lucrative and expanding trade. Sadly most ‘purchased brides’ are exploited, denied basic rights, duplicated as maids, and eventually abandoned. Depending on the age, looks and virginity of a girl, grooms pay anywhere from Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 300,000. (Source: The Hindu)

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Human trafficking caters to demand for brides

According to the 2013 National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report, 24,749 children and women between the ages of 15 and 30 were kidnapped and sold into marriage across the country. A field study on the impact of the sex ratio on marriage found that over 9,000 married women were bought from other states in Haryana alone. (Source: LiveMint)

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Youth buys bride for Rs 22,000 at auction, hangs himself later

The man who bought the bride paid Rs 17,000 in advance. However, it was only later that the men who had arranged the deal realized that the groom did not have enough funds to pay in full. According to a 2016 survey by National Crime Records Bureau, the number of girls who were abducted for the purpose of marriage in India was a staggering 33,855. (Source: IB Times)

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Haryana’s crisis: Bridegrooms all decked up, but no one to marry

Vices of the past are catching up with the Haryanvi society. Years of rampant sex selective abortions and rigid marriage laws in the Jat community have led to a `drought’ of brides. The state with the dubious distinction of the worst sex ratio in the country is now facing a crisis finding matches for its `gabru jawans’ (boys of marriageable age), who have no choice but to look for brides outside the state.

But `importing a bride’ is not an easy task. It has resulted in human trafficking becoming a common practice in Haryana. Studies on the issue reveal that thousands of women from rural areas of other states including Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Kerala, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh etc. have been either brought or `bought’ for marriage purposes. These women are called `molkis’ in Haryana, because the buyers pay money to the girls’ parents.

It was in this context that OP Dhankar, senior BJP leader and president of the Bhartiya Kisan Morcha suggested recently that the party could get girls from Bihar for the eligible bachelors of the state if the BJP came to power in the state. What he really meant was that instead of trafficking marriageable girls from other states, marriages could be solemnised in a legal manner with a little help from his party.

According to Dr Anita Yadav, Director, Women Studies Centre (WSC), Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, there are at least 6-7 brides from outside the state in almost all of the 6,000 villages of Haryana. Many of such brides are sexually and mentally harassed, many live in inhospitable conditions. In some cases the bride becomes common `property’ of male members in the family. This is exploitation of the worst kind. Sources say the `fee’ charged by the dalals for procuring women as brides from other states ranges between Rs 25,000 and Rs 30,000. Since these women are poor and illiterate in most cases, they allow themselves to be subjugated and exploited.

Families of boys who procure wives from other states never accept that they have actually paid money, but it is a fact that they are ready to pay anything between Rs 30,000 to Rs 60,000 for them. An independent study conducted in Haryana showed that there is hardly any village out of 6000 villages if the state where there are no such cases found. Jats of the state face the most shortage of brides, according to the study.
(Source: Firstpost)

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Additional reading:

In Haryana, get a bride for 1,000 rupees from Bihar
(Source: TimesofIndia)

The marriage bazaar: How female foeticide has made bride trade a roaring business
(Source: HindustanTimes)

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Hindu Husbands Killing Wives over Petty Issues

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There are numerous reported instances of Hindu men killing their wives over trivial domestic matters, such as not making round rotis or failing to cook food properly.

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Culinary Violence: Not Making Round Rotis or Tasty Food

Others

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Accusation of being Witches

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Women are been called ‘Witches’ and killed to settle scores.

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Witch-Hunting in India: The Violent Intersection of Superstition and Exploitation

The practice of branding women as witches (daayans) remains a brutal mechanism for social control and the settling of personal vendettas in rural India. Often triggered by poor harvests, medical crises, or land disputes, these “hunts” frequently result in extreme physical violence, social ostracization, and homicide, primarily targeting vulnerable women from marginalized castes and tribes.

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Brutality and Mob Violence in Rural Regions

Atrocities against Dalit Women

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Manglik

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Symbolic Marriages to Ward Off ‘Evil’

The Humiliating ‘Virginity Tests’ for Brides, a reality in India’s Kanjarbhat community

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“If the girl bleeds, she passes the test. They declare, “Maal Khara hai”. If she does not, it is assumed she has had premarital sex, and they say “Maal khota hai”, meaning she is “spoiled goods”, and the marriage can be annulled.

“Virginity test is a character certificate of the woman. Even the bride keeps the cloth with her bloodstains as a memento of pride,” says a member of the Kanjarbhat community.”
(Source: IndianExpress)

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Women In This Village Are Forced To Drink Water From Shoes To Get Rid Of Evil Spirits

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Women In Rajathan’s Bhilwara Vilage Are Forced To Drink Water From Shoes To Get Rid Of Evil Spirits

(Sources: News18 | Scoopwhopp)

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Limited Marital Autonomy and Restricted Mobility of Women in India

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Only 5% of women in India choose their husbands, 80% need permission to visit a health centre. (Sources: BusinessStandard | HuffingtonPost)

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Divorce Over Skype

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Naked Girls in Madurai Temple

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The Madurai Temple Ritual and State Intervention

Ritualistic “Purification” of Sexual Assault Survivors

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Forced Confinement and Religious “Counseling”

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