Written by Sulaiman Razvi
Polygamy, defined as having more than one spouse, particularly more than one wife, is prohibited for Hindus under the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955. However, classical Hindu scriptures contain numerous instances of polygamy and do not explicitly mandate monogamy. There is no clear scriptural injunction stating that a man must marry only one woman, despite the common claim that Hinduism prescribes monogamy as a rule.
Many Hindus assume that polygamy is religiously forbidden, yet this perception appears to stem more from modern legal reform than from scriptural authority. When confronted with textual evidence permitting polygamy, the defense often shifts from scripture to statutory law, emphasizing legal compliance rather than doctrinal prohibition. They claim that Hindus are highly adaptive. However, practices such as Sati and polygamy did not end purely because Hindu society chose to abandon them. These practices were legally prohibited by Indian courts. As a result, Hindus adapted not entirely out of voluntary reform, but because they were required to accept the decisions of the law. On this basis, it is difficult to identify any unequivocal scriptural verse that categorically prohibits polygamy.
This article deals with the following subjects
1) Practice of Polygamy in modern India
2) Examples of Polygamy in Hindu scriptures
3) Hindu scriptures permitting Polygamy
Practice of Polygamy in Modern India
While some Hindus mock Muslims for having four wives each, which is not accurate, they often overlook the fact that, according to certain surveys, Hindu men in India have at times shown comparable or even higher rates of polygamy than Muslims. Let us examine the survey data.
According to the Government of India 1961 Census, 5.8 percent of Hindus were polygamous, compared to 5.7 percent of Muslims. Polygamy among Buddhist men stood at 7.9 percent, among Jains at 6.7 percent, while the incidence was highest among Adivasis, with 15.25 percent practicing polygamy.
It is illegal for non Muslims in India to have more than one wife. Despite this, some Hindus have entered into multiple marriages. Official reports published in 1974, nearly two decades after the prohibition of Hindu bigamy, revealed that polygamy among certain non Muslim communities was higher than among Muslims at that time. The reported figures were Adivasis 15 percent, Hindus 5.8 percent, Jains 6.7 percent, Buddhists 7.9 percent, and Muslims 5.6 percent. Data for later decades in the same format are not readily available. Although the percentage differences may seem small, in absolute numbers they translated into large populations, with estimates suggesting around one crore Hindu men had more than one wife, compared to about 12 lakh Muslim men. According to the 2011 Census, about 66 lakh women were reported to be in bigamous marriages.
The National Family Health Survey conducted in 2006 showed that 2.5 percent of Muslim men were polygamous, compared to 1.7 percent of Hindu men and 2.1 percent of Christian men. Overall, polygamous marriages declined among both Hindus and Muslims. In this survey, the rate among Muslims was 0.8 percent higher than among Hindus, a relatively small gap. It is noteworthy that Indian law permits polygamy for Muslims under personal law, while the Hindu Marriage Act 1955 prohibits Hindu men from having more than one wife. Despite this legal prohibition, 1.7 percent of Hindu men were reported as polygamous in the survey. By contrast, even where the law permits polygamy for Muslims under Sharia based personal law, only a small minority, 2.5 percent, were reported to practice it. The 1961 and 1974 census data are often cited because they are among the few official sources that examined marriage patterns by religion. In addition, in Goa, a Hindu man may be permitted to practice polygamy under specific customary provisions, such as in cases where his wife has not borne a child.
Sources: Scroll | TimesOfIndia | CPSIndia | IndianExpress
Legal tactics used to bypass polygamy prohibitions
Another tactic used by some Hindus to have more than one spouse involves exploiting legal loopholes, as the Hindu Marriage Act prohibits having more than one wife at a time. Some convert to Islam to facilitate multiple marriages. Others, after marrying a second time, argue that the first marriage was not solemnized because certain ceremonies required by Hindu law were not duly performed.
When a Hindu man marries a second wife, the first wife often lodges a criminal case against him for polygamy. In many cases, the court rejects the case based on minor legal technicalities, allowing the culprit to elude punishment.
Live In Relationships as a Strategy to Bypass Monogamy Laws
Another practice cited in this context is the use of live in relationships as a way to navigate around monogamy laws. A married man may enter into a parallel partnership without formally contracting a second marriage. In Gujarat, this arrangement has been referred to as a Maitri Karar, or friendship contract, which has at times received informal legal recognition. Although such agreements are theoretically open to both men and women, reports suggest that they are more commonly utilized by economically privileged upper caste Hindu men, allowing them to maintain both a legal wife and a live in partner simultaneously.
A similar instance was reported in Madhya Pradesh, where a Lok Adalat directed a man named Basant Mahulal to divide his time between his wife and his live in partner. Such cases are often cited to argue that, despite statutory monogamy, alternative arrangements continue to operate in practice.
Sources: IndianExpress | TheHindu | IndiaTimes
Examples of Polygamy in Hindu scriptures
- Ram’s father Dasharath had 3-350 Wives
According to Padma Purana V.57.27-40 and Tulsi Ramayana, Chaupai 194 and Doha 186, King Dasharatha, the father of Rama, had three wives, commonly identified as Kaushalya, Sumitra, and Kaikeyi. However, Padma Purana V.116.42-45a presents a different account, stating that he had four wives, with Rama born to Kausalya, Lakshmana to Sumitra, Bharata to Surupa, and Shatrughna to Suvesa.
Furthermore, Valmiki Ramayana 2.34.10-14 describes Dasharatha as having 350 wives.
- Krishna had 16,100 junior wives along with 8 major wives
Vishnu Purana book 5.28.1-5 “RUKMINÍ bare to Krishńa these other sons, Chárudeshńa, Sudeshńa, Chárudeha, Sushena, Chárugupta, Bhadracháru, Cháruvinda, Sucháru, and the very mighty Cháru; also one daughter, Chárumatí. Krishńa had seven other beautiful wives, Kálindí, Mitravrindá, the virtuous Nágnajití, the queen Jámbavatí; Rohińí, of beautiful form; the amiable and excellent daughter of the king of Madra, Mádrí; Satyabhámá, the daughter of Śatrujit; and Lakshmańá, of lovely smiles 1. Besides these, he had sixteen thousand other wives.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)
Brahma Purana 95.12-18 “…Krsna took possession of elephants, horses, and other wealth brought by the servants from the collection of Naraka. Krsna, on an auspicious day married damsels brought from Naraka’s residence. O excellent brahmins, with a separate body for each of these, Krsna married them in accordance with piety. There were sixteen thousand and one hundred women or even more. Lord Krsna took up as many forms. But those virgins considered him as their sole lord individually, thinking, ‘Krsna married me alone.’ During the nights, O brahmins, Krsna the creator of the universe, Krsna of universal forms, stayed in the abodes of all of them.” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
Linga Purana section 1.69.82 “The excessively strong one, of unequalled exploit, Kṛṣṇa took up sixteen thousand one hundred girls for his own pleasure.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)
- Vasudeva the father of Krishna had 14 wives
Brahma Purana 112.35 “Vasudeva had fourteen excellent women as his wives. The first five were: a descendant of Puri named Rohini, Madira, Vaisakhi, Bhadra and Sunamni. The second set of seven ladies comprised Sahadeva, Santideva, Sridevi, Devaraksita, Vrkadevi, Upadevi, and Devaki. The thirteenth and the fourteenth were Sutanu and Yadavi. These two had at first been maid servants. [42] The renowned Sauri (Krsna) was born of Devaki and Vasudeva…” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
The Harivamsa Purana 1.35.3 also mentions that Vasudeva had fourteen wives. (Source)
- Soma the moon god had 27 wives
Brahma Purana 1.173 “Brilliant children of unmeasured splendour were born of those ladies of holy rites who had been mentioned as the twenty seven wives of Soma.” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Brahma Khanda 9.42 “…Now I am going to narrate to you the names of the wives of the Moon-god and the wonderful features of their character which constitute the essence of the Puranas. They are 27 in number and their names are as follows: Aswini, Bhrani, Krittika, Rehini, Mriga-siri, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pusya, Aslesa, Magha, Purva-Phalguni, Uttar-Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Visakha, Anuradha, Jestha, Mafa, Purvabhadra-padi, Purva-asada, Uttar-asada, Dhanistha, Sravana, Sata-bhisa, uttar-bhidra-padi and Revati…” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)
Srimad Bhagavatam 6.6.2 “He gave ten daughters in charity to Dharmarāja [Yamarāja], thirteen to Kaśyapa [first twelve and then one more], twenty-seven to the moon-god, and two each to Aṅgirā, Kṛśāśva and Bhūta. The other four daughters were given to Kaśyapa. [Thus Kaśyapa received seventeen daughters in all.]” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
Soma is likewise described as having twenty seven wives in Skanda Purana V.ii.26.1-6 and Varaha Purana 35.1.
- Hanuman’s father Kesari had two wives Anjana and Adrika. Hanuman was born from Anjana and wind god Vayu
Brahma Purana: Gautami Mahatmya 14.1-4 “…O Narada, there is a mountain Anjana. On that mountain, O excellent sage, there was an excellent celestial damsel Anjana. She had a downfall due to a curse. Her face resembled that of a monkey. Her husband’s name was Kesari. Adrika was another wife of Kesari. She too was a celestial damsel who had a downfall due to a curse. Her face and head resembled those of a cat. She too stayed on the Anjana mountain.” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
- Rudra had Eleven Wives
Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Brahma Khanda 9.13-22 “Now I am going to recite, O great saint, the names of the wives of Rudra. They are celebrated by the names of (1) Kala, (2) Kalavati, (3) Kashta, (4) Kalika, (5) Kalahapriya, (6) Kandali, (7) Bhisana, (8) Basna, (9) Pramocha, (10) Bhusana, (11) Suki. They produced several children and were all followers of Siva…” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)
Rudra is also described as having eleven wives in Srimad Bhagavatam 3.12.13.
- Agni had two wives
Devi Bhagavatam 12.10.81-100 “Here resides the Agni Deva very gladly with his two wives Svāhā and Svadhā and with his Vāhana and the other Devas…” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)
- Ganesh had two wives Siddhi and Buddhi
Ganesha is described as having two wives, Siddhi and Buddhi, identified as the daughters of Prajapati Visvarupa, and as begetting two sons through them.
Shiva Purana, Rudra Samhita 2.20.13 “By this that was celebrated, Ganesa has obtained two wives joyously. They are the excellent daughters of Prajapati Visvarupa. He has begot of his two wives of auspicious body two sons, Ksema of Siddhi and Labha of Buddhi. They bestow happiness on every one.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)
- Vishnu had three wives
Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Prakriti Khanda 6.13-21 “…Laksmi, Saraswati and Ganga are the three wives of Hari…” Tr. Rajendra Nath Sen (Source)
According to another version, he had four wives, and Tulsi was later included among them after he violated her. She then left her body and, as stated in the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, became the wife of Vishnu.
- Brahma had two wives
Skanda Purana 3.1.41.93-98 “O Kāśyapa, we are Gāyatrī and Sarasvatī, the beloved wives of Brahma.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)
- Yamaraja had ten wives
Srimad Bhagavatam 6.6.4 “The ten daughters given to Yamarāja were named Bhānu, Lambā, Kakud, Yāmi, Viśvā, Sādhyā, Marutvatī, Vasu, Muhūrtā and Saṅkalpā. Now hear the names of their sons.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
- Garuda had five wives
Brahmanda Purana 3.7.448-454; Vayu Purana 2.8.319 “The wives of Garuḍa were the other five viz.—Bhāsī, Krauñcī, Śukī, Dhṛtarāṣṭrī and Śyenī. I shall recount to you the children born of them.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)
- Uttanapada
Svayambhuva Manu, the son of Brahma, had two sons, Priyavrata and Uttanapada. Uttanapada had two wives, Suruci and Suniti.
Linga Purana 62.1-5 “An emperor of great splendour, the best among all those who wield weapons, king Uttānapāda, ruled over the earth. He had two wives, Sunīti and Suruci.” Tr. J.L. Shastri (Source)
Also mentioned in Srimad Bhagavatam 4.8.8.
- Manu had ten wives
As per Maitrayani Samhita 1.5.8 Manu had ten wives.
- Sage Yagnavalkya had two wives
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.5.1 “Yagnavalkya had two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayan.” (Source)
- Sage Mandarkini had five wives
Sage Mandakarni had five Apsaras (Nymphs) as his wives.
Valmiki Ramayana 3.11.16-17 “Then those five celestial beauties have led that sage astray who discerned the nature of this and the other world, or good and bad, or the nature of Absolute-Soul and Body- bound Soul, towards the passional restraint by, as though to achieve god’s task. Also thus, those five celestial apsaras attained wifehood of that sage, and for them he built a house in there, concealed inside that lake.” (Source)
- Prajapati Angira had two wives
Srimad Bhagavatam 6.6.19 “The prajāpati Aṅgirā had two wives, named Svadhā and Satī. The wife named Svadhā accepted all the Pitās as her sons, and Satī accepted the Atharvāṅgirasa Veda as her son.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
- Sage Saubhari had fifty wives
Shrimad Bhagavatam 9.6.52 “In the beginning I was alone and engaged in performing the austerities of mystic yoga, but later, because of the association of fish engaged in sex, I desired to marry. Then I became the husband of fifty wives, and in each of them I begot one hundred sons, and thus my family increased to five thousand members. By the influence of the modes of material nature, I became fallen and thought that I would be happy in material life. Thus there is no end to my material desires for enjoyment, in this life and the next.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
- Sage Visravas had four wives
Vayu Purana 9.32-34 “The sage Visravas was born of Idavida. He had four wives who made the family of Pulastya flourish. Brhaspati, the preceptor of the Devas, had a famous daughter named Devarinini. He (Visravas) married that girl. He (Visravas) married Puspotkata and Vaka, the daughters of Malyavan as well as Kaikasi, the daughter of Malin. Listen to their progeny.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, edited by G.P. Bhatt (Source)
- Atri had ten wives
Vayu Purana 9.64 “I shall now recount the lineage of Atri, the third Prajapati. He had ten chaste and beautiful wives.” Tr. G.V. Tagare, edited by G.P. Bhatt (Source)
- Sage Bhrigu had two wives
Brahmanda Purana 2.3.1.74-76 “The two wives of Bhrgu were excellent nobility of birth. They were unrivalled and splendid. (One of them) was the daughter of Hiranyakasipu, well-renowned by the name of Divya. The second was Paulomi, the daughter of excellent complexion, of Puloman…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)
Vayu Purana 2.4.73 “Bhrgu had two unequalled, excellent and auspicious wives of noble families. One was the daughter of Hiranyaka£ipu, famous by the name ‘Divya’ and the other was the fair-complexioned daughter of Puloman, named Paulomi.” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)
- Sage Marici had four wives
Sage Marici had four wives, who bore him sixty thousand children.
Brahma Purana 1.195-8 “Upadanava was the daughter of Hayasiras, Sarmistha was the daughter of Vrasaparvan, Puloman and Kalaka were the two daughters of Vaisvanara. They were the wives of Marici. They had great strength and they bore many children. They had sixty thousand sons who delighted Danavas…” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
also mentioned in Brahmanda Purana 2.3.6.26.
- Rishi Kashyapa had thirteen wives
Brahma’s son was Marici, and Marici’s son was Kashyapa. Rishi Kashyapa had thirteen wives, who were all sisters. Among them, his two principal wives were Diti and Aditi.
Srimad Bhagavatam 6.6.24-26 “…O King Parīkṣit, now please hear from me the names of Kaśyapa’s wives, from whose wombs the population of the entire universe has come. They are the mothers of almost all the population of the entire universe, and their names are very auspicious to hear. They are Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kāṣṭhā, Ariṣṭā, Surasā, Ilā, Muni, Krodhavaśā, Tāmrā, Surabhi, Saramā and Timi…” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
Devi Bhagavatam 4.3.21-22 “Vyâsa said :– Daksa Prajâpati had two daughters, Diti and Aditi; these two, of high rank, were married to Kas’yapa; and they were his favourites. Aditi gave birth to the very powerful Indra, the king of the Devas. Diti, too, asked for a son of the same strength, prowess, and splendour as those of Indra.” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)
Brahma Purana 1.164-5 “O leading brahmins, now listen to the names of the wives of Prajapati Kasyapa. They are Aditi, Diti, Danu, Arista, Surasa, Khasa, Surabhi, Vinata, Tamra, Krodhavasa, Ira, Kadru and Muni. O brahmins, know the children born of them.” Tr. Board of Scholars, edited by J.L. Shastri (Source)
Matsya Purana 4.53-54 “Out of the girls he created, he gave ten to Dharma, thirteen to Kasyapa…” Tr. Taluqdar of Oudh, edited by B.D. Basu (Source)
Also mentioned in Brahmanda Purana 2.3.3.56.
- Aditi’s son Aditya had four wives
Kurma Purana I.20.1-2 “Aditi gave birth to her son Lord Aditya (the sun-god) from Kasyapa. This Aditya had four wives. They were Samjna, Rajni, Prabha, and Chaya…” Tr. G.V. Tagare (Source)
Aditya had three wives, the fourth Chaya was the shadow of Samjna.
- Seventh son of Aditi also had four wives
Srimad Bhagavatam 6.18.3-4 “Dhātā, the seventh son of Aditi, had four wives, named Kuhū, Sinīvālī, Rākā and Anumati. These wives begot four sons, named Sāyam, Darśa, Prātaḥ and Pūrṇamāsa respectively. The wife of Vidhātā, the eighth son of Aditi, was named Kriyā. In her Vidhātā begot the five fire-gods named the Purīṣyas. The wife of Varuṇa, the ninth son of Aditi, was named Carṣaṇī. Bhṛgu, the son of Brahmā, took birth again in her womb.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
- Arjuna had four wives
According to Devi Bhagavatam, Book 2, Chapter 7, apart from the common wife Draupadi, Arjuna had another wife named Subhadra, who was the sister of Krishna. With Krishna’s consent, Arjuna carried her away by force.
According to Mahabharata, Adi Parva, Section 217, Arjuna married Chitrangada, the daughter of Chitravahana. In Adi Parva, Section 216, it is also stated that Arjuna married Ulupi, the daughter of the king of Nagas.
- King Harishchandra the son of Vedhas had one hundred wives
Aitareya Brahmana, chapter 3, para 13 “Harischandra, the son of Vedhas, of the Ikshavaku race, was a king who had no son. Though he had a hundred wives, they did not give birth to a son.” Tr. Martin Haug (Source)
- King Yayati
Padma Purana 2.79.1-2 “There (i.e. in that king) only, whose wife is Śarmiṣṭḥā and whose wife is beautiful Devayānī, good fortune is seen. This cannot be false, O king; then O glorious king, how are you fascinated by (the beauty of) this maiden’s body since you are known as a husband having two wives?” Tr. N.A. Deshpande (Source)
- King Somaka had 100 wives
Mahabharata 3.127 ’O Yudhishthira! there was a virtuous king Somaka by name. He had one hundred wives, O king, all suitably matched to their husband. He took great care, but could not succeed in getting a single son from any one of them, and a long time elapsed during which he continued a sonless man. Once upon a time, when he had become old, and was trying every means to have a son, a son was born to him, Jantu by name, out of that century of women.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
- King Sharyati had 4000 wives
Devi Bhagavatam Purana 7.2.31 “Śaryāti, the son of Vaivasvata, had four thousand married wives. All of them were endowed with auspicious signs and beautiful all of them were daughters of kings. They all were very obliging and dear to their husbands. But, out of all of these, the King had only one daughter exceptionally lovely and beautiful.” Tr. Swami Vijnananda (Source)
- King Sasabindu had 10,000 wives
Shrimad Bhagavatam 9.23.32 “The famous Śaśabindu had ten thousand wives, and by each he begot a lakh of sons. Therefore the number of his sons was ten thousand lakhs.” Tr. Swami Prabhupada (Source)
Permissibility of Polygamy
Hindu Scholars on Polygamy
Renowned Hindu scholar Vijnanesvara writes,
“According to the order of the classes, for the Brahmana three, for the Ksatriya two wives, and for the Vaisya one wife are ordained. A Sudra can have only one wife born in the same class.” Vijnanesvara in his commentary Mitakshara on Yajnavalkya Smriti 3.57 (Source)
Swami Vivekananda expressed no objection to polygamy.
“For women, they hold chastity as the most important virtue, no doubt. One man marrying more than one wife is not so injurious to society as a woman having more than one husband at the same time, for the latter leads to the gradual decay of the race.” The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 5/Writings: Prose and Poems/The East and The West/France-Paris (Source)
Swami Prabhupada the founder of ISKCON on Polygamy,
“…According to our Vedic process, polygamy is allowed. For example, Krsna married 16,000 wives, Arjuna married 3 or 4 wives, Krsna’s father Vasudeva, married 16 or 18 wives, like that. So according to the Vedic system polygamy is not prohibited…” By Swami Prabhupada, Letter to Karandhara written from Bombay (Source)
“People have become so degraded in this age that on the one hand they restrict polygamy and on the other hand they hunt for women in so many ways. Many business concerns publicly advertise that topless girls are available in this club or in that shop. Thus women have become instruments of sense enjoyment in modern society. The Vedas enjoin, however, that if a man has the propensity to enjoy more than one wife—as is sometimes the propensity for men in the higher social order, such as the brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas and vaiśyas, and even sometimes the śūdras—he is allowed to marry more than one wife. Marriage means taking complete charge of a woman and living peacefully without debauchery. At the present moment, however, debauchery is unrestricted. Nonetheless, society makes a law that one should not marry more than one wife. This is typical of a demoniac society.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 4.26.6 (Source)
“A man is allowed to keep more than one wife because he cannot enjoy sex when the wife is pregnant. If he wants to enjoy sex at such a time, he may go to another wife who is not pregnant. These are laws mentioned in the Manu-samhita and other scriptures.” Swami Prabhupada on Srimad Bhagavatam 4.27.5 (Source)
Kulluka Bhatta writes,
“For the Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya classes, when the primary marriage is to be undertaken, a woman of the same social order is considered the most meritorious. Furthermore, for those who embark upon subsequent marriages prompted by personal desire, these women who are to be specified hereafter, in the descending order of social hierarchy (anuloma), would be deemed the most appropriate. For the Shudra, only a Shudra woman may serve as the wife; the three superior classes, beginning with the Vaishya, are strictly prohibited. In the case of the Vaishya, both a Shudra and a Vaishya woman are recorded as wives by Manu and other prescribed authorities. For the Kshatriya, the designated wives are women of the Vaishya, Shudra, and Kshatriya classes. For the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, and Brahmin women are designated. Even the sage Vashistha asserts, “Some allow even a Shudra woman, provided the sacred mantras are excluded,” thereby addressing the marriage of the twice-born classes with Shudra women when performed without the accompaniment of Vedic recitations.” Kulluka Bhatta on Manu Smriti 3.12-13
Vedas
The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, neither explicitly permit nor prohibit polygamy. However, references that suggest the existence of polygamous arrangements can be found in the Vedic corpus, indicating that the practice was present during the Vedic period. The citations here rely on Ram Sharma’s Hindi translation.
Indra is described as having three wives in the following verse,
Rig Veda 5.42.12 “May the House-friends, the cunning-handed Artists, may the Steer’s Wives, the streams carved out by Vibhvan, And may the fair Ones honour and befriend us, Sarasvatī, Brhaddiva, and Rākā.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)
Maitrayani Samhita 3.11.1 [140, 10-11] “The three goddesses growing by means of oblation, enjoying Indra like wives, Sarasvati, heavenly Ida, and all-conquering Bharati with their swelling milk [enjoying] the unbroken thread…” Tr. Catherine Ludvik
Vishnu is said to have had two wives, Sarasvati and Aditi. This is truly a case of polygamy unless it is a contradiction,
Yajur Veda 29.60 “…a mess of boiled rice is to be made for Prajâpati; the same for Vishnu’s Consort Aditi…” Tr. Ralph T.H. Griffith (Source)
Atharva Veda 7.46.3 “…O Consort of Vishnu Goddess, urge thy Lord to bounty.” Tr. Ralph T.H. Griffith (Source)
The Veda also appears to sanction polyandry. Rig Veda 6.49.7 refers to Sarasvati as the wife of Indra, which differs from the passage cited above unless the variation is treated as a contradiction. Moreover, Yajur Veda 19.94 describes Sarasvati as the wife of the Ashwin brothers, presenting a clear instance of polyandrous association within the textual tradition.
A verse in the Rig Veda states that the aged Rishi Chyavana, after being rejuvenated, was married to multiple maidens.
Rig Veda 1.116.10 “Ye from the old Cyavana, O Nasatyas, stripped, as ’twere mail, the skin upon his body, Lengthened his life when all had left him helpless, Dasras! and made him lord of youthful maidens.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)
The above is a reproduced excerpt from Ram Sharma Acharya’s Hindi translation, while the following translation is by Pandit Ram Govind Trivedi.
Chyavana’s rejuvenation is also mentioned in Nirukta 4.19, Mahabharata, Adi Parva 1.177, and Pancavimsa Brahmana 14.6.10, though these passages do not describe his marriages. The reference to maidens may denote several women or merely two, as most Hindu texts identify only two wives. The tradition provides limited detail about his marital life and focuses primarily on Sukanya, the daughter of King Saryati, who is described as his wife in Srimad Bhagavatam 9.3. Other sources mention another wife, Arushi, the daughter of Manu, who bore him a son named Aurva, as stated in Mahabharata, Adi Parva 1.66.47.
The following verses further indicate the prevalence of polygamy during the Vedic period.
Rig Veda 10.43.1 “IN perfect unison all yearning hymns of mine that find the light of heaven have sung forth Indra’s praise. As wives embrace their lord, the comely bridegroom, so they compass Maghavan about that he may help.” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)
Rig Veda 4.58.8 “As youthful ladies of love and virtue, inspired with passion and smiling in bliss, proceed to meet agni, enlightened husband, so do streams of ghrta move and flow into the vedi to meet the lighted fire, and the rising fire, loving and gracious, cherishes to receive the flow of the holy yajaka’s offer.” Tr. Tulsi Ram
Another English translation,
Rig Veda 4.58.8 “The streams of Ghi incline to Agni as devoted wives, auspicious and smiling, to a husband: they feed (the flame) like fuel, and Jatavedas, propitiated, accepts them.” Tr. H.H. Wilson (Source)
Krishna Yajur Veda 6.5.1.4 “…therefore as one goes many follow; therefore one becomes superior among many; therefore one wins many wives…” Tr. Arthur Berriedale Keith (Source)
Shatapatha Brahmana 9.4.1.6 “To the male (deity) he makes offering first, then to the females: he thereby endows the male pre-eminently with power. To a single male he makes offering, and to many females, whence even a single man has many wives. To the male (deity) he makes offering both with the Vashat-call and the Svâhâ-call, to the female (deities) only with the Svâhâ: he thereby endows the male pre-eminently with power.” Tr. Julius Eggeling (Source)
Aitareya Brahmana 3.23 “For one man has man has many wives (represented by the Richas), but one wife has not many husbands at the same time.” Tr. Martin Haug (Source)
Polygamy among Kshatriyas was more prevalent which is accepted by Hindu apologists also. Rig Veda shows the same,
Rig Veda 7.18.2 “For like a King among his wives thou dwellest: with glories, as a Sage, surround and help us…” Tr. Ralph Griffith (Source)
Textual Evidence Supporting Polygamy
Manu Smriti 3.12-13 “For the first marriage of twice-born men (wives) of equal caste are recommended; but for those who through desire proceed (to marry again) the following females, (chosen) according to the (direct) order (of the castes), are most approved. It is declared that a Sudra woman alone (can be) the wife of a Sudra, she and one of his own caste (the wives) of a Vaisya, those two and one of his own caste (the wives) of a Kshatriya, those three and one of his own caste (the wives) of a Brahmana.” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)
Mahabharata 1.160.36 “There is no sin in this. For a man polygamy is an act of merit, but for a woman it is very sinful to betake herself to a second husband after the first.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Mahabharata 14.80.12-18 “Oh, let Vijaya, let him that is called Gudakesa, let this hero with reddish eyes, come back O life. O blessed lady, polygamy is not fault with men. Women only incur fault by taking more than one husband.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Mahabharata 1.197.27-28 “Drupada answered, ‘O scion of Kuru’s race, it hath been directed that one man may have many wives. But it hath never been heard that one woman may have many husbands!” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Agni Purana 285.63-67 “…A husband of many wives, should lick with his tongue, every day, a syrup composed of Triphala, Pippali, honey, clarified butter, and pulverised Amalaki treated with the expressed juice of the same fruit, and then drink water…” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)
Manu Smriti 9.85 “If twice-born men wed women of their own and of other (lower castes), the seniority, honour, and habitation of those (wives) must be (settled) according to the order of the castes (varna).” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)
Hindu scriptures also provide instructions specifying which wife, according to caste, should perform religious duties with the husband when he has multiple wives.
Vishnu Smriti 26.1-4 “If a man has several wives of his own caste, he shall perform his religious duties together with the eldest (or first married) wife. (If he has several) wives of diverse castes (he shall perform them) even with the youngest wife if she is of the same caste as himself. On failure of a wife of his own caste (he shall perform them) with one belonging to the caste next below to his own; so also in cases of distress (i.e, when the wife who is equal in caste to him happens to be absent, or when she has met with a calamity); But no twice born man ever with a S’udra wife.” Tr. Julius Jolly (Source)
Katyayana Samhita 8.6 “Many wives of the same caste and of other castes existing, the rite of churning, for producing the Fire, should be done by the chaste wives of the same caste, on account of the superiority of birth.” Tr. Manmatha Nath Dutt (Source)
Four Wives
The only variation regarding polygamy in Hindu scriptures concerns the number of wives permitted to a Brahmin, as some texts allow four while others restrict the number to three. The following verses permit four wives for a Brahmin, three, and in some cases even more, for a Kshatriya, two for a Vaishya, and only one for a Shudra.
Mahabharata 13.47.4 “It has been laid down, O grandsire, that a Brahmana can take four wives, viz., one that belongs to his own order, one that is a Kshatriya, one that is a Vaisya, and one that is a Sudra, if the Brahmana wishes to indulge in the desire of sexual intercourse.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Mahabharata 13.48.4 “The Brahmana may take four wives, one from each of the four orders. In two of them (viz.,the wife taken from his own order and that taken from the one next below), he takes birth himself (the children begotten upon them being regarded as invested with the same status as his own)…A Kshatriya may take three wives…The Vaisya may take two spouses…The Sudra can take only one wife, viz., she that is taken from his own order. The son begotten by him upon her becomes a Sudra….” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Agni Purana 153.1 “Pushkara said:- A Brahman may take four wives, a Kshatriya three, a Vaishya two, while a member of the Shudra caste is not allowed to have more than a single wife.” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)
Manu Smriti 9.149 “If there be four wives of a Brahmana in the direct order of the castes, the rule for the division (of the estate) among the sons born of them is as follows.” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)
Vishnu Smriti 24.1-5 “Now a Brahmana may take four wives in the direct order of the (four) castes; A Kshatriya, three; A Vaisya, two; A Sudra, only one.” Tr. Julius Jolly (Source)
Baudhyana Dharma Shastra, Prasna I, Adhyaya 8, Kandika 16, verses 1-5 “There are four castes (varna, viz.) Brâhmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sûdras. (Males) belonging to them (may take) wives according to the order of the castes, (viz.) a Brâhmana four, A Kshatriya three, A Vaisya two, A Sudra one.” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)
Three Wives
Paraskara Grihya Sutra I Kanda, 4 Kandika, 8-11 “Three (wives are allowed) to a Brahmana, in accordance with the order of the castes, Two to a Raganya, One to a Vaisya, One Sudra wife besides to all, according to some (teachers), without using Mantras (at the ceremonies of wedding, &c.).” Tr. Hermann Oldenberg (Source)
Yajnavalkya Smriti 3.57 “Three, according to the order of the caste, so also two, and one for a Brahmana, a Ksatriya and a Vaisya respectively (may be the wives). To a person born as a Sudra, a girl of her own caste is his wife.” Srisa Chandra Vasu (Source)
The commentary of Vijnanesvara on this verse has already been cited above.
Sankha Samhita 4.7 “Brahmana can marry three wives, a Kshatriya can take a couple of wives, while a Vais’ya or S’udra can marry a single wife. A Brahmana can marry a Brahmana, Kshartriya, or a Vais’ya girl.” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)
Vasistha Dharma Shastra 1.24 “Three wives (are permitted) to a Brâhmana according to the order of the castes, two to a Kshatriya, one to a Vaisya and to a Sûdra.” Tr. Georg Buhler (Source)
Mahabharata 13.44.11-12 “A Brahmana can take three wives. A Kshatriya can take two wives. As regards the Vaisya, he should take a wife from only his own order. The children born of these wives should all be regarded as equal. Of the three wives of a Brahmana, she taken from his own order should be regarded as the foremost. Similarly, of the two wives permitted to the Kshatriya, she taken from his own order should be regarded as superior. Some say that persons belonging to the three higher orders may take, only for purposes of enjoyment (and not for those of virtue), wives from the lowest or the Sudra order. Others, however, forbid the practice.” Tr. K.M. Ganguli (Source)
Some texts permit a Brahmin to have four wives, while others restrict the number to three. There is general agreement among scholars that a Brahmin should first marry a woman from his own caste, followed by women from succeeding castes. The same principle applies to Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. They may marry multiple women from their own caste as well, but the relevant verses primarily regulate marriage with women of other castes. Those who limit a Brahmin to three wives base their view on the following reasoning.
Yajnavalkya Smriti 3.56 “Though it has been said that a twice born may take a wife from a Sudra family, yet that is not my opinion, because out of her, he is born himself.” Tr. Srisa Chandra Vasu (Source)
A similar position is expressed in Manusmriti 3.14, which states that a man of a lower caste cannot marry a woman of a higher caste. However, a Brahmin is permitted to marry a woman from any caste. The following two verses clarify this issue.
Narada Smriti 12.4-6 “When a Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, or Sudra takes a wife, it is best for him to take her out of his own caste; and so is a member of her own caste (the most eligible) husband for a woman (of any caste). A Brahman may marry three wives of different caste, in the direct order of the castes; and so may a Sudra woman take a husband of any of the three castes above her own. For a Kshatriya, two wives differing (from him) in caste are permitted; for a Vaisya, a single wife differing (from him) in caste…” Tr. Julius Jolly (Source)
Munis to King
Markandeya Purana 113.31-34 “A Brahmana does not lose his caste, if after marrying first in the house of Brahmana, he takes wives from other castes. Similarly O king, a Kshatriya does not lose his caste, if after first taking the hand of a Kshatriya girl he marries other caste girls. So a Vaisya is not excluded from his caste if he marries a Sudra girl after first taking a Vaisya wife. This is the due order. 0 king, the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and, Vaisyas lose their caste if they marry the girls o£ other castes, before taking wives from their respective orders.” Tr. M.N. Dutt (Source)
Please ensure that this article is cited whenever any verse is reproduced.
