{"id":8084,"date":"2016-08-03T13:50:16","date_gmt":"2016-08-03T13:50:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/?p=8084"},"modified":"2026-03-28T06:41:37","modified_gmt":"2026-03-28T06:41:37","slug":"inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/","title":{"rendered":"Inventions in the modern Islamic world"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><strong>SOURCE:<\/strong> https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world<\/p>\n<p>This is a list of <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invention\"><strong>inventions<\/strong><\/a> that were developed <strong>in the modern <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Muslim_world\"><strong>Islamic world<\/strong><\/a>, a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geopolitical\">geopolitical<\/a> region that extends from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Africa\">Africa<\/a> and the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balkans\">Balkans<\/a> in the west to the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indian_subcontinent\">Indian subcontinent<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malay_Archipelago\">Malay Archipelago<\/a> in the east.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-0\"><sup>[1<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>The inventions listed here were developed after the <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_Golden_Age\">Islamic Golden Age<\/a>, which is usually dated between the 8th and 15th centuries. For earlier inventions developed during the Islamic Golden Age, see <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world\">Inventions in the medieval Islamic world<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_85 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-transparent ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title ez-toc-toggle\" style=\"cursor:pointer\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Architecture\" >Architecture<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-2' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Structural_systems\" >Structural systems<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Arts\" >Arts<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-2' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Literature\" >Literature<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Music\" >Music<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Electronics_and_Computing\" >Electronics and Computing<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#Philosophy\" >Philosophy<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-1'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/vedkabhed.com\/index.php\/2016\/08\/03\/inventions-in-the-modern-islamic-world\/#References\" >References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h1><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Architecture\"><\/span>Architecture<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_architecture\"><em>Islamic architecture<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pabell%C3%B3n-Puente_Zaragoza.jpg\">[4][5]<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bridge_Pavilion\">Bridge Pavilion<\/a>, constructed by<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iraq\">Iraqi<\/a> architect <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zaha_Hadid\">Zaha Hadid<\/a>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deconstructivist\"><strong>Deconstructivist<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postmodern_architecture\"><strong>postmodern architecture<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zaha_Hadid\">Zaha Hadid<\/a> is a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pritzker_Prize\">Pritzker Prize<\/a>-winning <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iraq\">Iraqi<\/a> deconstructivist <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Architect\">architect<\/a> known for many postmodern buildings. One of her most notable is the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bridge_Pavilion\"><strong>Bridge Pavilion<\/strong><\/a>, the first <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pavilion_(structure)\">pavilion<\/a> built over a <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bridge\">bridge<\/a>, which she constructed in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zaragoza\">Zaragoza<\/a> for the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expo_2008\">Expo 2008<\/a>. She also built the first <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Signature_Towers\"><strong>Dancing Towers<\/strong><\/a> in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dubai\">Dubai<\/a>, as well as the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vilnius_Guggenheim_Hermitage_Museum\">Vilnius Guggenheim Hermitage Museum<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maggie%27s_Centres\">Maggie&#8217;s Centres<\/a>, London <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aquatics_Centre\">Aquatics Centre<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Riverside_Museum\">Riverside Museum<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuragic_and_Contemporary_art_museum\">Nuragic and Contemporary art museum<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ordrupgaard\">Ordrupgaard<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phaeno_Science_Center\">Phaeno Science Center<\/a>, the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vitra\">Vitra<\/a> fire station, and the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosenthal_Center_for_Contemporary_Art\">Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-rise\"><strong>High-rise<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swimming_pool\"><strong>swimming pool<\/strong><\/a>: The 44th-floor <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sky_lobby\">sky lobby<\/a> of the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hancock_Centre\">John Hancock Centre<\/a>, constructed by the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a> engineer <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a> in 1969, features the first high-rise indoor swimming pool, which remains the highest in America.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Emporis-1\"><sup>[2<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Shibam_Yemen_Interior.jpg\">[6][7]<\/a>\u00a0The earliest <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-rise\">high-rise<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tower_house\">tower houses<\/a>, and high-rise <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mudbrick\">mudbrick<\/a><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apartment_building\">apartment buildings<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tower_block\">tower blocks<\/a>, built in <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Shibam\">Shibam<\/a> during the 16th century.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-rise\"><strong>High-rise<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mudbrick\"><strong>mudbrick<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apartment_building\"><strong>apartment building<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tower_block\"><strong>tower block<\/strong><\/a>: The 16th-century city of <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Shibam\">Shibam<\/a> in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yemen\">Yemen<\/a> is sometimes called the &#8220;oldest <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper\">skyscraper<\/a>-city in the world&#8221; and the &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manhattan\">Manhattan<\/a> of the desert.&#8221; Shibam was made up of over 500 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tower_house\">tower houses<\/a>,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-UNESCO-2\"><sup>[3<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> each one rising 5 to 11 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storey\">storeys<\/a>high,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Helfritz-3\"><sup>[4<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> with each floor having one or two <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apartment\">apartments<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Jerome-4\"><sup>[5<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The city had the first high-rise (which need to be at least 75 feet (23 m) tall) mudbrick buildings, with some of them being over 100 feet (30 m) tall. These remain the tallest high-rise mudbrick buildings in the world.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Shipman-5\"><sup>[6<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The tallest building in the city is the mudbrick <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minaret\">minaret<\/a> which stands at over 175 feet (53 m) tall.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Jerome-4\"><sup>[5<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prefabricated_home\"><strong>Prefabricated home<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>movable structure<\/strong>: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mughal_Empire\">Mughal India<\/a> by<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akbar_the_Great\">Akbar the Great<\/a>. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-6\"><sup>[7<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Renting\"><strong>Rented<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apartment_building\"><strong>apartment building<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tower_block\"><strong>tower block<\/strong><\/a>: By the 16th century, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cairo\">Cairo<\/a> had <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-rise\">high-rise<\/a> apartment buildings where the two lower floors were used for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leasehold_estate\">tenants<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-7\"><sup>[8<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Johnhancock.jpg\">[8][9]<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hancock_Center\">John Hancock Center<\/a>, constructed by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a>\u00a0engineer <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a>. It introduced the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_(structure)\">trussed tube<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diagrid\">X-bracing<\/a>structures and was the first building with a <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sky_lobby\">sky lobby<\/a>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sky_lobby\"><strong>Sky lobby<\/strong><\/a>: The first sky lobby was designed by the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a> engineer <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a> for the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hancock_Center\">John Hancock Center<\/a>, completed in 1969.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Emporis-1\"><sup>[2<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> This was the first time that people could have the opportunity to work and live &#8216;in the sky&#8217;.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Banglapedia-8\"><sup>[9<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> Later buildings with sky lobbies include the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Trade_Center\">World Trade Center<\/a> in the United States, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petronas_Twin_Towers\">Petronas Twin Towers<\/a> in Malaysia, and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taipei_101\">Taipei 101<\/a> in Taiwan.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper\"><strong>Skyscrapers<\/strong><\/a><strong>, tallest<\/strong>: The Bangladeshi engineer <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a>, considered the &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Einstein\">Einstein<\/a> of <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_engineering\">structural engineering<\/a>&#8221; and &#8220;the greatest <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Architectural_engineer\">architectural engineer<\/a> of the second half of the 20th century&#8221; produced designs of structural systems that remain fundamental to all high-rise <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper\">skyscrapers<\/a>, which he employed in his constructions for the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hancock_Center\">John Hancock Center<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sears_Tower\">Sears Tower<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-9\"><sup>[10<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The Sears Tower remained the world&#8217;s tallest building up until 2007, when the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Burj_Dubai\">Burj Dubai<\/a>, currently under construction in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dubai\">Dubai<\/a>, surpassed its height as the world&#8217;s tallest building, reaching 585.7 metres (1,922 ft) in height and will be even taller when complete.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-10\"><sup>[11<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The world&#8217;s tallest <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Twin_towers\">twin towers<\/a>, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petronas_Twin_Towers\">Petronas Twin Towers<\/a>, was also built in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malaysia\">Malaysia<\/a> in 1998.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_power\"><strong>Wind powered<\/strong><\/a><strong> rotating <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper\"><strong>skyscraper<\/strong><\/a>: The world&#8217;s first rotating skyscraper is to be built at the center of the Dubailand complex in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dubai\">Dubai<\/a> and should be completed by 2010. The building will be 420 metres (1,400 ft) high with 80 independently rotating storeys. The skyscraper will also be able to generate its own <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electricity\">electricity<\/a> from 79 horizontal <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_turbine\">wind turbines<\/a> stacked between each floor.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-11\"><sup>[12<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Structural_systems\"><\/span>Structural systems<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sears_Tower_ss.jpg\">[10][11]<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sears_Tower\">Sears Tower<\/a>, constructed by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a>. It introduced the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_(structure)\">bundled tube<\/a> structure and was the world&#8217;s tallest building at the time of its completion in 1973.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_(structure)\"><strong>Framed tube<\/strong><\/a>: Since 1963, a new structural system of framed tubes appeared in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper_design_and_construction\">skyscraper design and construction<\/a>. The Bangladeshi engineer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a> defined the framed tube structure as &#8220;a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-12\"><sup>[13<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was in the DeWitt-Chestnut apartment building which he designed and was completed in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chicago\">Chicago<\/a> in 1963. It introduced the framed tube structure later used in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Construction_of_the_World_Trade_Center\">construction of the World Trade Center<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Ali-13\"><sup>[14<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Swenson-14\"><sup>[15<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_(structure)#Trussed_tube\"><strong>Trussed tube<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diagrid\"><strong>X-bracing<\/strong><\/a>: Another innovation in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skyscraper_design_and_construction\">skyscraper design and construction<\/a> developed by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a> were the concepts of the trussed tube and X-bracing. This reduced the lateral load on the building by transferring the load into the exterior columns. This allows for a reduced need for interior columns thus creating more floor space. This concept was introduced by the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hancock_Center\">John Hancock Center<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Ali-13\"><sup>[14<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Banglapedia-8\"><sup>[9<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> In contrast to earlier <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steel_frame\">steel-frame<\/a> structures, such as the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empire_State_Building\">Empire State Building<\/a> (1931) and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chase_Manhattan_Bank_Building\">Chase Manhattan Bank Building<\/a> (1961) which both required around 275 kilograms of steel per square metre, the John Hancock Centre was far more efficient, requiring only 145 kilograms of steel per square metre.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Swenson-14\"><sup>[15<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The trussed tube concept was applied to many later skyscrapers, including the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onterie_Center\">Onterie Center<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citigroup_Center\">Citigroup Center<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_of_China_Tower\">Bank of China Tower<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_(structure)#Bundled_tube\"><strong>Bundled tube<\/strong><\/a>: One of <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fazlur_Khan\">Fazlur Khan<\/a>&#8216;s most important variations of the tube structure concept was the bundled tube, which he used for the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sears_Tower\">Sears Tower<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/One_Magnificent_Mile\">One Magnificent Mile<\/a>. The bundle tube design was not only the most efficient in economic terms, but it was also &#8220;innovative in its potential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficient towers no longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take on various shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts of groupings.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Banglapedia-8\"><sup>[9<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-15\"><sup>[16<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Arts\"><\/span>Arts<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_art\"><em>Islamic art<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Literature\"><\/span>Literature<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_literature\"><em>Islamic literature<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Arabic_literature\"><em>Arabic literature<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epic_(genre)\"><strong>Epic<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/science_fiction\"><strong>science fiction<\/strong><\/a> and\u00a0<strong>epic <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/space_opera\"><strong>space opera<\/strong><\/a>: These genres of science fiction largely originated from the 1965 novel <a href=\"https:\/\/dune.fandom.com\/wiki\/Dune_(novel)\"><em>Dune<\/em><\/a>, which was greatly inspired by <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Arabic_literature\">Arabic literature<\/a> and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_literature\">Islamic literature<\/a>, particularly\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_eschatology\">Islamic eschatology<\/a>\u00a0and prophecies related to the <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Mahdi\">Mahdi<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-0\"><sup>[1]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-1\"><sup>[2]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-2\"><sup>[3]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<em>Dune<\/em> has been widely influential, inspiring other novels, music, films (including <a href=\"https:\/\/starwars.fandom.com\/wiki\/\"><em>Star Wars<\/em><\/a>), television, <a href=\"https:\/\/dune.fandom.com\/wiki\/Dune_computer_games\">games<\/a>, comic books and t-shirts.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-3\"><sup>[4]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-4\"><sup>[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inspirational_fiction\"><strong>Inspirational fiction<\/strong><\/a>: The Lebanese Arabic poet\u00a0Kahlil Gibran gained significant popularity in the Western world with his 1923 English-language prose poetry work,\u00a0<em>The Prophet<\/em>,\u00a0an early example of\u00a0inspirational fiction\u00a0including a series of philosophical essays written in poetic\u00a0English\u00a0prose. The book sold well despite a cool critical reception, gaining popularity in the 1930s and again especially in the\u00a01960s counterculture.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-BBC12May12-5\"><sup>[6]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-NY-Jan-08-6\"><sup>[7]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Its popularity grew markedly during the 1960s with the American\u00a0counterculture\u00a0and then with the flowering of the\u00a0New Age\u00a0movements. It has remained popular with these and with the wider population to this day. Since it was first published in 1923,\u00a0<em>The Prophet<\/em>\u00a0has never been out of print. Having been translated into more than forty languages,<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;cite_note-7\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0it was one of the bestselling books of the twentieth century in the United States. Gibran is the third best-selling poet of all time, behind\u00a0Shakespeare\u00a0and\u00a0Lao-Tzu.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-NY-Jan-08-6\"><sup>[7]<\/sup><\/a> Gibran inspired a range of Western artists, ranging from Elvis Presley <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ciis.edu\/Americas_Hidden_Islamic_and_Arab_Roots.html\">[12]<\/a> to John Lennon.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-8\"><sup>[9]<\/sup><\/a> In Lebanon, he is still celebrated as a literary hero.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-BBC12May12-5\"><sup>[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Music\"><\/span>Music<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_music\"><em>Islamic music<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Arabic_music\"><em>Arabic music<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blues\"><strong>Blues<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Adhan\"><strong>Adhan<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Nasheed\"><strong>Nasheed<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jazz\"><strong>Jazz<\/strong><\/a>: Blues music has its origins in the Islamic call to prayer, the Adhan, which in turn was first recited out loud by the prophet <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Muhammad\">Muhammad<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Afro-Arab\">Afro-Arab<\/a> follower, <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Bilal_ibn_Rabah_al-Habashi\">Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi<\/a>, in the 7th century. The Adhan itself gave rise to the Nasheed tradition of Islamic music. As Islam spread peacefully to West Africa from the 8th to 11th centuries, the Adhan and Nasheed traditions gave rise to the West African work song tradition. In turn, West African Muslim slaves taken to North America brought over their Islamic work song tradition and evolved it into blues music by the late 19th century. Some of the early blues songs, such as &#8220;Levee Camp Holler&#8221; in the early 20th century, have been noted for having a striking resemblance to the Adhan. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100131025259\/http:\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=\/chronicle\/archive\/2004\/08\/15\/INGMC85SSK1.DTL\">[13]<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.saudiaramcoworld.com\/issue\/200604\/muslim.roots.u.s.blues.htm\">[14]<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.princeamongslaves.org\/module\/blues.html\">[15]<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1080\/10999940701382615?journalCode=usou20#.UgSr-ZK1GSo\">[16]<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0qmO8XouJ2U\">[17]<\/a>\u00a0Blues and Arabic music in turn influenced jazz music. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.imc-cim.org\/mmap\/pdf\/prod-lindgren-e.pdf\">[18]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oldschool_jungle\"><strong>Jungle<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ragga_jungle\"><strong>ragga jungle<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/dancehall\"><strong>dancehall<\/strong><\/a><strong> jungle, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drum_and_bass\"><strong>drum &amp; bass<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0UK Apachi (Abdul Wahab Lafta) was one of the founders of these genres of electronic dance music, with his hit track &#8220;Original Nutta&#8221; in 1994. <a href=\"http:\/\/techno.org\/electronic-music-guide\/\">[19]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_music\"><strong>Electronic music<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/electroacoustic_music\"><strong>electroacoustic<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/tape_music\"><strong>tape music<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0The spread of tape recorders eventually led to the development of electroacoustic tape music. The first known example was composed in 1944 by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halim_El-Dabh\">Halim El-Dabh<\/a>, a student at <a href=\"https:\/\/history.wikia.org\/wiki\/Cairo\">Cairo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/history.wikia.org\/wiki\/Egypt\">Egypt<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-wire_2007-9\"><sup>[10]<\/sup><\/a> He recorded the sounds of an ancient <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Z%C4%81r\"><em>zaar<\/em><\/a> ceremony using a cumbersome <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wire_recording\">wire recorder<\/a> and at the Middle East Radio studios processed the material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls, and re-recording. The resulting work was entitled <em>The Expression of Zaar<\/em> and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also notable for his later work in electronic music at the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Music_Center\">Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center<\/a> in the late 1950s.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-10\"><sup>[11]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Later in 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCA_Mark_II_Sound_Synthesizer\">RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer<\/a>, the first programmable <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/synthesizer\">synthesizer<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-11\"><sup>[12]<\/sup><\/a> Halim El-Dabh used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-12\"><sup>[13]<\/sup><\/a> El-Dabh was one of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-13\"><sup>[14]<\/sup><\/a> After having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944,<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-wire_2007-9\"><sup>[10]<\/sup><\/a> he became more famous for <em>Leiyla and the Poet<\/em>, a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fusion_(music)\">fusion<\/a> of electronic and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/folk_music\">folk music<\/a>, in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serialism\">serial<\/a> composers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh&#8217;s <em>Leiyla and the Poet<\/em>, released as part of the album <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Columbia-Princeton_Electronic_Music_Center_(album)\"><em>Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center<\/em><\/a> in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neil_Rolnick\">Neil Rolnick<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_Amirkhanian\">Charles Amirkhanian<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alice_Shields\">Alice Shields<\/a> to <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/rock_music\">rock musicians<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Frank_Zappa&amp;oldid=501899332\">Frank Zappa<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_West_Coast_Pop_Art_Experimental_Band\">The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-14\"><sup>[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Electro_(music)&amp;oldid=447411561\"><strong>Electro<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Electro_(music)&amp;oldid=447411561\"><strong>electro-funk<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0An important precursor to the electro genre, laying the foundations for its sound, was the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cat_Stevens\">Cat Stevens<\/a>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yusuf_Islam\">Yusuf Islam<\/a>)\u00a0track\u00a0&#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Izitso\">Was Dog a Doughnut<\/a>&#8221; in 1977.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-wire_1996-15\"><sup>[16]<\/sup><\/a> Later in 1983, <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hashim_Music\">Hashim<\/a> created the influential electro funk tune &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Calliste_Jr\">Al-Naafiysh (The Soul)<\/a>&#8221; which became Cutting Record&#8217;s first release in November 1983.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-16\"><sup>[17]<\/sup><\/a> Hashim became a major influence on the emerging electro and hip hop genres.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-17\"><sup>[18]<\/sup><\/a> &#8220;Al-Nafyish&#8221; was later included in <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playgroup_(band)\">Playgroup<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/compilation_album\">compilation album<\/a> <em>Kings of Electro<\/em> (2007), as one of the most influential electro tracks.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-18\"><sup>[19]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garage_rock\"><strong>Garage rock<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punk_rock\"><strong>punk rock<\/strong><\/a>:<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Garage rock\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-19\"><sup>[20]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0and punk rock\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-20\"><sup>[21]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0are largely derived from the surf rock genre pioneered by Dick Dale, who in turn was inspired by the Arabic music of his Lebanese uncle.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Musical_notation\"><strong>Geometric musical notation<\/strong><\/a>: In 1252, <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safi_al-Din_Urmawi\">Safi al-Din<\/a> developed a unique form of <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/musical_notation\">musical notation<\/a>, where <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/rhythm\">rhythm<\/a> were represented by <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_mathematics\">geometric<\/a> representation. A similar geometric representation would not appear in the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_world\">Western world<\/a> until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-21\"><sup>[22]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metal_music\"><strong>Heavy metal<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0Dale is often cr ed as one of the first electric guitarists to employ fast\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scale_(music)\">scales<\/a>\u00a0in his playing.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-last_fm-22\"><sup>[23]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0The &#8220;breakneck speed of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dick_Dale\">Dick Dale<\/a>&#8216;s\u00a0single-note\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/staccato\">staccato<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/guitar_picking\">picking<\/a>\u00a0technique&#8221; (inspired by Arabic music) as well as his showmanship with the guitar is considered a precursor to\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/heavy_metal_music\">heavy metal music<\/a>, influencing guitarists such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jimi_Hendrix\">Jimi Hendrix<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eddie_Van_Halen\">Eddie Van Halen<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-amg_dale-23\"><sup>[24]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Dick Dale is thus sometimes referred to as the &#8220;father of heavy metal.&#8221;\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.co.uk\/books?id=DY9TBRXDi40C&amp;pg=PT15\">[20]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hip_hop_music\"><strong>Hip hop music<\/strong><\/a><strong>,\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hip_hop\"><strong>hip hop culture<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rapping\"><strong>rapping<\/strong><\/a>: Hip hop and rapping largely originated with African American Muslims in the 1960&#8217;s. In the early 1960&#8217;s, the boxer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muhammad_Ali\">Muhammad Ali<\/a> was famous for using early forms of rapping in his speeches, inspiring a generation of African Americans. Later in 1969, <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jalal_Mansur_Nuriddin\">Jalal Mansur Nuriddin<\/a>\u00a0founded\u00a0the first hip hop group,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Last_Poets\">The Last Poets<\/a>,\u00a0rapping over drum beats and other instrumentation, pioneering hip hop music. Their lyrics, largely inspired by Islam, was also very political, laying the foundations for the hip hop counter-culture. Critic Jason Ankeny wrote: &#8220;With their politically charged raps, taut rhythms, and dedication to raising African-American consciousness, the Last Poets almost single-handedly laid the groundwork for the emergence of hip-hop.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-24\"><sup>[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Light harp<\/strong>:\u00a0A variation of the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/laser_harp\">laser harp<\/a>, this is an electronic musical instrument that plays music without any physical contact, or without even any lasers showing, but the music is played by the musician moving their arms or legs through the air above certain areas of the device. It was invented by martial artistist and musician, Assaf Gurner, who publically presented his invention in 1993. It was also the basis for the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/sega-activator\/3000-8\/\">Sega Activator<\/a>, the first\u00a0full-body <a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/motion-control\/3015-474\/\">motion controller<\/a> for video games.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-25\"><sup>[26]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Activator-26\"><sup>[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marching_band\"><strong>Marching band<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_band\"><strong>military band<\/strong><\/a>: See <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Military\"><em>Military<\/em><\/a> below.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_jack_swing\"><strong>New jack swing<\/strong><\/a>: Syrian-Jamaican musician <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kurtis_Mantronik\">Kurtis Mantronik<\/a>, leader of the band <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mantronix\">Mantronix<\/a>, laid the foundations for the new jack swing music genre in the mid-1980s.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Do_You_Like...Mantronix.3F-27\"><sup>[28]<\/sup><\/a> New jack swing gained considerable mainstream popularity during the late 1980s to early 1990s, inspiring a wide range of popular musicians, ranging from Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson to\u00a0Madonna and\u00a0Whitney Houston.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/wikipedia:Solf\u00e8ge\"><strong>Solf\u00e8ge\u00a0musical notation<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0Western Solf\u00e8ge <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/musical_notation\">musical notation<\/a> is considered to have had Arabic origins. The Solf\u00e8ge syllables (<em>do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti<\/em>) is believed to have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/solmization\">solmization<\/a> system <em>Durr-i-Mufassal<\/em> (&#8220;Separated Pearls&#8221;) (<em>dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam<\/em>). This connection was first proposed by Meninski in his <em>Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum<\/em> (1680) and then by Laborde in his <em>Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne<\/em> (1780), and later brought to light again by musical scholars such as <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_George_Farmer\">Henry George Farmer<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-28\"><sup>[29]<\/sup><\/a> and Samuel D. Miller.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-29\"><sup>[30]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surf_music\"><strong>Surf rock<\/strong><\/a>: Surf rock was pioneered in the early 1960&#8217;s by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dick_Dale\">Dick Dale<\/a>\u00a0(Richard Anthony Monsour), a Lebanese American guitarist. His signature guitar technique that gave rise to surf rock was\u00a0the rapid alternating\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guitar_picking\">picking<\/a>\u00a0technique, which was based on the <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Arabic_music\">Arabic music<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-washfile-30\"><sup>[31]<\/sup><\/a> he learnt from his <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lebanon\">Lebanese<\/a> uncle.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-last_fm-22\"><sup>[23]<\/sup><\/a> According to Dale, \u201cMy uncle taught me how to play the tarabaki, and I watched him play the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/oud\">oud<\/a>. We used to play at the Maharjan\u201d (an annual Lebanese festival in Greater Boston) \u201cwhile relatives <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/belly_dancing\">belly-danced<\/a>.\u201d His early tarabaki drumming would later have a major influence on his guitar <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/guitarist\">playing<\/a>, particularly his rapid alternating <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guitar_picking\">picking<\/a> technique. According to Dale, \u201cIt\u2019s the pulsation,\u201d stating that whether he is playing the guitar, trumpet, or <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/piano\">piano<\/a>, \u201cthey all have that drumming beat I learned by playing the tarabaki.\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-washfile-30\"><sup>[31]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0His most famous song is &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misirlou&quot; \\o &quot;wikipedia:Misirlou\">Misirlou<\/a>&#8221; (1962), a surf rock version of an early 20th century\u00a0traditional\u00a0Arabic-Greek-Turkish song.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ciis.edu\/Americas_Hidden_Islamic_and_Arab_Roots.html\">[21]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Synthpop&amp;oldid=503043606\"><strong>Synthpop<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0The <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cat_Stevens\">Cat Stevens<\/a> (<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yusuf_Islam\">Yusuf Islam<\/a>) album <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Izitso\"><em>Izitso<\/em><\/a>, released in April 1977, updated his \u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/pop_rock\">pop rock<\/a> style with the extensive use of synthesizers,<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-amg_izitso-31\"><sup>[32]<\/sup><\/a> giving it a more synthpop style;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-discogs_izitso-32\"><sup>[33]<\/sup><\/a> &#8220;Was Dog a Doughnut&#8221; in particular was an early techno-pop fusion track,<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-wire_1996-15\"><sup>[16]<\/sup><\/a> which made early use of a <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/music_sequencer\">music sequencer<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-discogs_izitso2-33\"><sup>[34]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Electronics_and_Computing\"><\/span>Electronics and Computing<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discrete_cosine_transform\"><strong>DCT<\/strong><\/a>: Discrete cosine transform (DCT) was invented by Indian researcher <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/N._Ahmed\">Nasir Ahmed<\/a> in 1974.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-pubDCT-34\"><sup>[35]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-35\"><sup>[36]<\/sup><\/a> DCT has become the most widely used compression algorithm in modern computing, and is the basis for nearly all modern image formats (such as <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JPEG\">JPEG<\/a>), video formats (as <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MPEG\">MPEG<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/H.264\/MPEG-4_AVC\">AVC<\/a>) and audio formats (such as <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MP3\">MP3<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Audio_Codec\">AAC<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_double-layer_capacitor\"><strong>Electric double-layer supercapacitor<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Battery_charger\"><strong>rapid battery charger<\/strong><\/a>: In 2013, the 18 year-old female scientist\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eesha_Khare&quot; \\o &quot;wikipedia:Eesha Khare\">Eesha Khare<\/a>\u00a0inventor a batter charger that could fully charge a battery within twenty seconds, sparking the interest of technology companies such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\">Google<\/a>. This was made possible with her invention of a new electric double-layer supercapacitor that could charge batteries significantly faster than conventional chargers.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/news\/article-2327021\/Esha-Khare-Teens-invention-charge-cellphone-20-seconds.html\">[22]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium-ion_battery\"><strong>Lithium-ion battery<\/strong><\/a>: Moroccan Muslim scientist <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rachid_Yazami\">Rachid Yazami<\/a> demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-36\"><sup>[37]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-37\"><sup>[38]<\/sup><\/a> The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode, slowing the development of a rechargeable lithium\/graphite battery. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. As of 2011, the graphite electrode discovered by Yazami is the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium ion batteries.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MOSFET\"><strong>MOSFET<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>MOS transistor<\/strong>: The MOSFET (metal\u2013oxide\u2013semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Egyptian engineer <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mohamed_Atalla\">Mohamed Atalla<\/a> in 1959. It is one of the most important modern inventions, as it became the basis for nearly all modern electronics, such as computers, semiconductors, integrated circuits, <a href=\"https:\/\/computer.fandom.com\/wiki\/Microprocessor\">microprocessors<\/a>, memory chips, etc.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-38\"><sup>[39]<\/sup><\/a> The MOSFET is the most widely manufactured device in history, with 13 sextillion MOS transistors manufactured worldwide.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-39\"><sup>[40]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\"><strong>PC virus<\/strong><\/a>: The <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain_(computer_virus)\">Brain<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/boot_sector\">boot sector<\/a> virus was released in January 1986. Brain was the first <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PC\">PC<\/a> virus, and the program responsible for the first <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_PC_compatible\">PC<\/a> virus epidemic. The virus is also known as Lahore, Pakistani, Pakistani Brain, and Pakistani flu, as it was created in <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lahore\">Lahore<\/a>, Pakistan by 19 year-old Pakistani programmer, Basit Farooq Alvi, and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-theregisterJanuary2006-40\"><sup>[41]<\/sup><\/a> They included their names, phone number and address in the code.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-41\"><sup>[42]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-42\"><sup>[43]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Tablet phone<\/strong>: The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samsung_Galaxy_Tab_series\">Samsung Galaxy Tab<\/a>, which combines a <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\">smartphone<\/a> with a <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tablet_computer\">tablet computer<\/a>, was developed by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samsung\">Samsung<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chief_technology_officer\">chief technology officer<\/a> Omar Khan and released in 2010. <a href=\"http:\/\/phandroid.com\/2011\/07\/11\/omar-khan-the-godfather-of-galaxy-resigns-as-samsungs-cpocto\/\">[23]<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Online computing<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-learning\"><strong>E-learning<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/microlecture\"><strong>micro-lecture<\/strong><\/a>: The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Khan_Academy\">Khan Academy<\/a>\u00a0founded by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladeshi_American\">Bangladeshi American<\/a>\u00a0educator\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salman_Khan_(educator)\">Salman Khan<\/a>\u00a0in 2006. His online micro-lectures are used by millions of students and teachers around the world.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Real-time anti-<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_fraud\"><strong>fraud<\/strong><\/a><strong> system<\/strong>: In 2000, many of the core components of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PayPal\">PayPal<\/a>, including its real-time anti-<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fraud\">fraud<\/a> system,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Karim-16\"><sup>[17<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> was designed and implemented by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladeshi_American\">Bangladeshi American<\/a> software engineer <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jawed_Karim\">Jawed Karim<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-17\"><sup>[18<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_hosting_service\"><strong>Video hosting service<\/strong><\/a><strong> with <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_browser\"><strong>web browser<\/strong><\/a><strong>-embedded <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_player_(software)\"><strong>video player<\/strong><\/a>: In 2005, Bangladeshi\u00a0American programmer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jawed_Karim\">Jawed Karim<\/a> pioneered the idea of a video hosting service with a web browser-embedded video player, and co-founded <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\">YouTube<\/a> as a result.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-18\"><sup>[19<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_auction\"><strong>Web-based auction<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0The first Web-based auction sites appeared in 1995 with Onsale and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/eBay\">eBay<\/a>, founded\u00a0by Iranian\u00a0American computer programmer <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pierre_Omidyar\">Pierre Omidyar<\/a>. These were the first to take advantage of the technologies offered by the Web, including the use of automated bids entered through electronic forms, and search engines and clickable categories to allow bidders to locate their items of interest.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-cohen-43\"><sup>[44]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Real-time 3D graphics<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Arcade_game\"><strong>Arcade<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0quality <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Graphics_processing_unit\"><strong>GPU<\/strong><\/a>: VideoLogic (now <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imagination_Technologies\">Imagination Technologies<\/a>), founded by Iranian computer engineer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hossein_Yassaie&quot; \\o &quot;wikipedia:Hossein Yassaie\">Hossein Yassaie<\/a>, released the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PowerVR\">PowerVR<\/a> graphics accelerator card in 1996. It was the first graphics accelerator card to introduce near arcade-quality 3D graphics to a home system, demonstrated by a port of arcade game <a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/rave-racer\/3030-23244\/\"><em>Rave Racer<\/em><\/a>\u00a0(1995) in early 1996, though this port was later cancelled. Yassaie&#8217;s VideoLogic later developed the PowerVR2 GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) chipset for <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Sega\">Sega<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Dreamcast\">Dreamcast<\/a> console, released in 1998. It was the first GPU chipset that was capable of producing true arcade\u00a0quality <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Three-dimensional\">3D graphics<\/a> on a home system, with the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.system16.com\/hardware.php?id=721\">Sega Naomi<\/a> arcade system also using the same PowerVR2 graphics chipset.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Cel-shaded_animation\"><strong>Cel-shaded graphics<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Fear_Effect\"><em>Fear Effect<\/em><\/a> (2000), programmed by <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mobygames.com\/developer\/sheet\/view\/developerId,83581\/\">Mohammad Asaduzzaman<\/a>, is often considered to be the first video game to feature real-time, cel-shaded <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Three-dimensional\">3D graphics<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_surface_determination\"><strong>Hidden surface removal<\/strong><\/a>: The PowerVR2 graphics chipset from VideoLogic (founded by Hossein Yassaie), for the Sega Dreamcast in 1998, introduced the 3D graphical technique of hidden surface removal.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Graphics_processing_unit\"><strong>Mobile GPU<\/strong><\/a>: In 2001,\u00a0Imagination Technologies (formerly VideoLogic), led by Hossein Yassaie,\u00a0introduced the mobile GPU (Graphics Processing Unit),\u00a0PowerVR MBX. The PowerVR line of mobile GPU chipsets would later be used to provide the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Three-dimensional\">3D graphics<\/a>\u00a0for most of the popular mobile phones, including the Apple iPhone and Samsung Galaxy brands, from the late 2000&#8217;s through to the present day. In 2012,\u00a0Hossein Yassaie received a knighthood for his services to technology and innovation. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.imgtec.com\/news\/Release\/index.asp?NewsID=715\">[24]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Three-dimensional\"><strong>Photorealistic 3D graphics<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Crytek&quot; \\o &quot;w:c:gaming:Crytek\">Crytek<\/a>, founded by the Turkish Yerli brothers, broke new ground in terms of graphics,\u00a0with the games\u00a0<em>Far Cry<\/em>\u00a0(2004) and\u00a0<em>Crysis<\/em>\u00a0(2007), with the latter in particular introducing photorealism to real-time 3D graphics.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-guidetofps-44\"><sup>[45]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-ops_cry-45\"><sup>[46]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Crytek remain the world-leaders in photorealistic real-time 3D graphics.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Entertainment<\/p>\n<p>Sports<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Harbhajan_Singh_bowling.jpg\">[25][26]<\/a>The <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doosra\">Doosra<\/a> bowling technique in<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cricket\">cricket<\/a> was developed by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarfraz_Nawaz\">Sarfraz Nawaz<\/a> in the late 1970s.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ali_shuffle\"><strong>Ali shuffle<\/strong><\/a>: The &#8220;Ali Shuffle&#8221; was a <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boxing\">boxing<\/a> move invented by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muhammad_Ali\">Muhammad Ali<\/a>, where he moved his feet quickly back and forth to try to confuse his opponent.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Burgan-87\"><sup>[88<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doosra\"><strong>Doosra<\/strong><\/a>, <strong>Teesra<\/strong>, and <strong>Chootha<\/strong>: In <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cricket\">cricket<\/a>, the Doosra delivery, and its follow-ups, the Teesra and Chootha, were invented by the Pakistani cricketer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saqlain_Mushtaq\">Saqlain Mushtaq<\/a> in the 1990s.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-saqlain_ireland-88\"><sup>[89<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_swing\"><strong>Reverse swing<\/strong><\/a>: The reverse swing <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bowling_(cricket)\">bowling<\/a> technique in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cricket\">cricket<\/a> was invented by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pakistan\">Pakistani<\/a> fast bowlers. Former Pakistan international <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarfraz_Nawaz\">Sarfraz Nawaz<\/a> was the founder of reverse swing during the late 1970s, and he passed his knowledge on to former team-mate <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imran_Khan\">Imran Khan<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-89\"><sup>[90<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rope-a-dope\"><strong>Rope-a-dope<\/strong><\/a>: The rope-a-dope <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boxing\">boxing<\/a> technique was invented by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muhammad_Ali\">Muhammad Ali<\/a> during his fight against <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Foreman\">George Foreman<\/a> during the &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rumble_in_the_Jungle\">Rumble in the Jungle<\/a>&#8221; in 1974.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Burgan-87\"><sup>[88<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Video games<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/3D_Platformer\"><strong>3D platformer<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Platformer\"><strong>endless running game<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0In 1987, while working at Japanese company Squaresoft, Iranian programmer <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a> first programmed the game <em>Tobidase Daisakusen<\/em> for the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Famicom_Disk_System\">Famicom Disk System<\/a> (with Famicom 3D System), which released in the U.S. as <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/3-D_WorldRunner\"><em>3-D WorldRunner<\/em><\/a> for the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nintendo_Entertainment_System\">NES<\/a>. It was released in early 1987.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-nextgen-46\"><sup>[47]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-WorldRunner-47\"><sup>[48]<\/sup><\/a> <em>3-D WorldRunner<\/em> was an early forward-scrolling <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/2.5D\">pseudo-3D<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Third_person_view\">third-person<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Platformer\">platform-action game<\/a> where players were free to move in any forward-scrolling direction and had to leap over obstacles and chasms. It was also notable for being one of the first <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_stereoscopic_video_games\">stereoscopic 3-D games<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-WorldRunner-47\"><sup>[48]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0This also paved the way for later &#8220;endless running&#8221; mobile games such as <em>Temple Run (<\/em>2011).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Racing\"><strong>3D racing game<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a>&#8216;s second Squaresoft project was <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rad_Racer\"><em>Rad Racer<\/em><\/a>, an early stereoscopic 3D <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Rad_Racer\">racing game<\/a> also designed for the <em>Famicom 3D System<\/em> in 1987.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Moby-48\"><sup>[49]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Experience_point#Activity-based_progression\"><strong>Activity-based progression<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a> went on to program <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Final_Fantasy_II\"><em>Final Fantasy II<\/em><\/a>, released in 1988. It replaced traditional levels and experience points with a new <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Experience_point#Activity-based_progression\">activity-based progression<\/a> system that required &#8220;gradual development of individual statistics through continuous actions of the same kind,&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-mobyoleg_170-49\"><sup>[50]<\/sup><\/a> a mechanic that has been used in a number of later RPG&#8217;s, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/SaGa_(series)\"><em>SaGa<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-RPGFan-Romancing-Saga-50\"><sup>[51]<\/sup><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grandia_(series)\"><em>Grandia<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-51\"><sup>[52]<\/sup><\/a> series, <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Final_Fantasy_XIV\"><em>Final Fantasy XIV<\/em><\/a>,<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-52\"><sup>[53]<\/sup><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Elder_Scrolls\"><em>The Elder Scrolls<\/em><\/a> series.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_(video_games)\"><strong>Customizable real-time AI<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Secret_of_Mana\"><em>Secret of Mana<\/em><\/a> (1993), programmed by <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a>,\u00a0introduced customizable <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\">AI settings<\/a> for computer-controlled allies,<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-53\"><sup>[54]<\/sup><\/a> to real-time <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Action_role-playing_game\">action role-playing games<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-person_shooter\"><strong>First-person shooter<\/strong><\/a>: In 1982, <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a>\u00a0released the Apple II game <em>Horizon V<\/em>, which was an early example of a first-person shooter for a home system.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-54\"><sup>[55]<\/sup><\/a> That same year, he released the Apple II game <em>Zenith<\/em>, a similar first-person shooter with the addition of allowing the player&#8217;s ship to be rotated.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-55\"><sup>[56]<\/sup><\/a> John Romero, the creator of the landmark first-person shooters <em>Wolfenstein 3D<\/em> (1992) and <em>Doom<\/em> (1993),\u00a0cr ed Gebelli as a major influence on his career as a game designer.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-56\"><sup>[57]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/finalfantasy.fandom.com\/wiki\/Job_System\"><strong>Job system<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a> programmed <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Final_Fantasy_III\"><em>Final Fantasy III<\/em><\/a>, released in 1990, which introduced the classic <a href=\"https:\/\/finalfantasy.fandom.com\/wiki\/Job_System\">job system<\/a>, a character progression engine allowing the player to change the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/character_class\">character class<\/a>, as well as acquire new and advanced classes and combine class abilities, during the course of the game.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-FF3jobs-57\"><sup>[58]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-square_ffmanual-58\"><sup>[59]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Keyword-based RPG dialogue system<\/strong>:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Final_Fantasy_II\"><em>Final Fantasy II<\/em><\/a>, programmed by <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a>, introduced an innovative <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dialog_tree\">dialogue system<\/a> where keywords or phrases can be memorized and mentioned during conversations with <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/non-player_character\">non-player character<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-FFII-59\"><sup>[60]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Full-body <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/motion-control\/3015-474\/\"><strong>motion control<\/strong><\/a>: The <a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/sega-activator\/3000-8\/\">Sega Activator<\/a>, based on the Light Harp invented by Assaf Gurner,<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;cite_note-60\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> was released for the Mega Drive (Genesis) in 1993. It could read the player&#8217;s physical movements and was the first controller to allow full-body motion sensing. However, it was a commercial failure due to its &#8220;unwieldiness and inaccuracy&#8221;.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Activator-26\"><sup>[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Open_world\"><strong>Open-world<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/First-person_shooter\"><strong>first-person shooter<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Crytek\">Crytek<\/a>, founded by Turkish brothers\u00a0Cevat, Avni and Faruk Yerli, broke new ground in terms of large, open-ended level design, with the games <em>Far Cry<\/em> (2004) and\u00a0<em>Crysis<\/em> (2007), introducing true open-world environments to the first-person shooter genre.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-guidetofps-44\"><sup>[45]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-ops_cry-45\"><sup>[46]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Side-view RPG battle<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Nasir_Gebelli\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a> teamed up with Hironobu Sakaguchi as part of Squaresoft&#8217;s A-Team to produce <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Final_Fantasy\"><em>Final Fantasy<\/em><\/a>, the first entry in the popular <em>Final Fantasy<\/em> series. A <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Role-playing_game\">role-playing game<\/a> (RPG) released for the NES in 1987, it introduced side-view battles, with the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/player_character\">player character<\/a> on the right and the enemies on the left, which soon became the norm for numerous console RPG&#8217;s.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-gspot_finalfhist_b-61\"><sup>[62]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Simulation_racer\"><strong>Sim racing<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0Simulation <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/racing\">racing<\/a> is generally acknowledged to have taken off in 1989 with the introduction of <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Papyrus_Design_Group\">Papyrus Design Group<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"https:\/\/gaming.fandom.com\/wiki\/Indianapolis_500:_The_Simulation\"><em>Indianapolis 500: The Simulation<\/em><\/a>, designed by Omar Khudari on 16-bit computer hardware. The game is often generally regarded as the personal computer&#8217;s first true auto racing simulation. Unlike most other racing games at the time, <em>Indianapolis 500<\/em> attempted to simulate realistic <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_physics\">physics<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/telemetry\">telemetry<\/a>, such as its portrayal of the relationship between the four contact patches and the pavement, as well as the loss of grip when making a high-speed turn, forcing the player to adopt a proper racing line and believable throttle-to-brake interaction. It also featured a garage facility to allow players to enact modifications to their vehicle, including adjustments to the tires, shocks and wings.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-GSpot-Papyrus-62\"><sup>[63]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Cuisine \/ Food \/ Drink<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chicken_tikka\"><strong>Chicken tikka<\/strong><\/a>: This dish originated in the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punjab_region\">Punjab region<\/a> of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indian_subcontinent\">Indian subcontinent<\/a>, among the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hindkowans\">Hindkowans<\/a> of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peshawar\">Peshawar<\/a>, in modern-day <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pakistan\">Pakistan<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CTM.jpg\">[27][28]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chicken_tikka_masala\">Chicken tikka masala<\/a> originated from <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a> chefs.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chicken_tikka_masala\"><strong>Chicken tikka masala<\/strong><\/a>: A widely reported explanation of the origins of this <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curry\">curry<\/a> dish is that it was conceived by <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-book-19\"><sup>[20<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Guardian-20\"><sup>[21<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> chefs at a restaurant in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glasgow\">Glasgow<\/a> during the late 1960s, when a customer, who found the traditional <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chicken_tikka\">chicken tikka<\/a> too dry, asked for some <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravy\">gravy<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-bbcenc-21\"><sup>[22<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The chef thus improvised a sauce from tomato soup, yogurt and spices, and served what would later be known as the chicken tikka masala.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-book-19\"><sup>[20<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coffeehouse\"><strong>Coffeehouse \/ Cafe<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0The Ottoman chronicler \u0130brahim Pe\u00e7evi reports in his writings (1642\u201349) about the opening of the first coffeehouse in Istanbul: &#8220;<em>Until the year 962 [1555], in the High, God-Guarded city of Constantinople, as well as in Ottoman lands generally, coffee and coffee-houses did not exist. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city; they each opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale, and began to purvey coffee.<\/em>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-63\"><sup>[64]<\/sup><\/a> Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a &#8220;Kiva Han&#8221; in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but with no documentation. In 1530, the first coffee house was opened in Damascus,<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;cite_note-64\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> and not long after there were many coffee houses in Cairo. The 17th century French traveler Jean Chardin gave a lively description of the Persian coffeehouse scene: &#8220;<em>People engage in conversation, for it is there that news is communicated and where those interested in politics criticize the government in all freedom and without being fearful, since the government does not heed what the people say. Innocent games&#8230; resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose. The narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. A molla will stand up in the middle, or at one end of the qahveh-khaneh, and begin to preach in a loud voice, or a dervish enters all of a sudden, and chastises the assembled on the vanity of the world and its material goods. It often happens that two or three people talk at the same time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher and the other a storyteller.<\/em>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-65\"><sup>[66]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D%C3%B6ner_kebab\"><strong>D\u00f6ner kebab<\/strong><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ca%C4%9F_kebab\"><strong>Ca\u011f kebab<\/strong><\/a>, and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C4%B0skender_kebap\"><strong>\u0130skender kebap<\/strong><\/a>: The original form of today&#8217;s d\u00f6ner kebab is Ca\u011f kebab. The original form is grilled horizontally and the slices are cut thicker, after inserting a special L-shaped <em>Oltu shish<\/em> along the surface. In the 19th century, the modern form of d\u00f6ner kebab was invented in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bursa,_Turkey\">Bursa, Turkey<\/a>. This original dish, known as \u0130skender kebap, is still served in many cities of Turkey.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ice_cream_cone\"><strong>Ice cream cone<\/strong><\/a>: The first edible conical shaped cones for serving ice cream were created at the St. Louis Worlds Fair in 1904 by immigrants from the Islamic world.\u00a0The cones were initially made from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jalebi\">Zalabia<\/a>, a sweet popular across the Islamic world.\u00a0The first of these immigrants to serve ice cream cones included Abe Doumar, Ernest Hamwi, and Nick Kabbaz, all from Syria, and David Avayou from Turkey.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-66\"><sup>[67]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-67\"><sup>[68]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-68\"><sup>[69]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ideafinder.com\/history\/inventions\/icecreamcone.htm\">[29]<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.saudiaramcoworld.com\/issue\/young.readers.world\/who.invented.the.ice.cream.cone\/\">[30]<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Hygiene<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shampoo\"><strong>Shampoo<\/strong><\/a>: The earliest documented evidence of shampoo dates back to the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bengali_people\">Bengali<\/a> Muslim entrepeneur <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sake_Dean_Mahomet\">Sake Dean Mahomet<\/a>. He opened a shampooing bath known as &#8216;Mahomed&#8217;s Indian Vapour Baths&#8217; in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brighton\">Brighton<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/England\">England<\/a>, in 1759. His baths were like <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkish_bath\">Turkish baths<\/a> where clients received an Indian treatment of <em>champi<\/em> (shampooing) or therapeutic massage. His service was appreciated; he received the high accolade of being appointed \u2018Shampooing Surgeon\u2019 to both <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom\">George IV<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom\">William IV<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Vallely-22\"><sup>[23<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Instruments<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cartographic <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qibla\"><strong>Qibla<\/strong><\/a><strong> indicators<\/strong>: These were <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brass\">brass<\/a> instruments with <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mecca\">Mecca<\/a>-centred <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_map\">world maps<\/a> and cartographic <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grid_reference\">grids<\/a> engraved on them. They were invented in 17th-century <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iran<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Reflections-23\"><sup>[24<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><strong>Cartographic Qibla indicator with <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sundial\"><strong>sundial<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compass\"><strong>compass<\/strong><\/a>: This was a Qibla instrument with a sundial and compass attached to it,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-24\"><sup>[25<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> and was invented by Muhammad Husayn in the 17th century.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-25\"><sup>[26<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_16.jpg\">[31][32]<\/a>In the 1570s, Taqi al-Din invented a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sextant_(astronomical)\">framed sextant<\/a> similar to what<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tycho_Brahe\">Tycho Brahe<\/a> later used as shown in the picture.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sextant_(astronomical)\"><strong>Framed sextant<\/strong><\/a>: At the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Istanbul_observatory_of_al-Din\">Istanbul observatory of al-Din<\/a> between 1577 and 1580, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> invented the <em>mushabbaha bi&#8217;l manattiq<\/em>, a framed sextant with cords for the determination of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equinox\">equinoxes<\/a> similar to what <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tycho_Brahe\">Tycho Brahe<\/a> later used.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Tekeli-26\"><sup>[27<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telescope\"><strong>Telescope<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>long-distance <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnification\"><strong>magnifying<\/strong><\/a><strong> device<\/strong>: A long-distance magnifying device was invented by <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf\">Taqi al-Din<\/a>, as described in his <em>Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights<\/em> around 1574. He describes it as an instrument that makes objects located far away appear closer to the observer, and that the instrument helps to see distant objects in detail by bringing them very close. He states that he wrote another earlier treatise explaining the way this instrument is made and used, suggesting that he invented it some time before 1574. This device is considered to be a rudimentary telescope.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Topdemir-69\"><sup>[70]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seam_(metallurgy)\"><strong>Seamless<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globe\"><strong>globe<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Celestial_globe\"><strong>celestial globe<\/strong><\/a>: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metallurgy\">metallurgy<\/a>, they were invented in <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kashmir\">Kashmir<\/a> by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lahore\">Lahore<\/a> and Kashmir during the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mughal_Empire\">Mughal Empire<\/a>. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metallurgists\">metallurgists<\/a> to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seam_(metallurgy)\">seams<\/a>, even with modern technology. These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lost-wax_casting\"><strong>lost-wax casting<\/strong><\/a> while producing these seamless globes.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-28\"><sup>[29<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Mechanical technology<\/p>\n<p>Steam-powered technology<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Smoke-jack.jpg\">[33][34]<\/a>The <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smoke_jack\">smoke jack<\/a>, the earliest impulse <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam_turbine\">steam turbine<\/a>, was invented by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> in 1551.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Steam engine, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam_turbine\"><strong>steam turbine<\/strong><\/a><strong>, impulse\u00a0steam turbine<\/strong>: In 1551, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a>\u00a0invented the first impulse steam turbine and described the first practical applications for it as a prime mover for rotating a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spit_(cooking_aide)\">spit<\/a>, predating\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giovanni_Branca\">Giovanni Branca<\/a>&#8216;s later impulse steam turbine from 1629. Al-Din described his invention in his book,\u00a0<em>Al-Turuq al-saniyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya<\/em>\u00a0(<em>The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines<\/em>), completed in 1551 AD (959 AH).<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Taqi-33\"><sup>[34<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam-power\"><strong>Steam-powered<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0spit,\u00a0self-rotating <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rotisserie\"><strong>spit<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smoke_jack\"><strong>smoke jack<\/strong><\/a>: In 1551, the Egyptian engineer <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> described the first practical <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam_turbine\">steam turbine<\/a> as a prime mover for the first steam-powered and self-rotating spit and smoke jack.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Taqi-33\"><sup>[34<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Water-powered technology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_cylinder_engine\"><strong>Six-cylinder<\/strong><\/a><strong> &#8216;Monobloc&#8217; <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pump\"><strong>pump<\/strong><\/a>: In 1559, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> invented a six-cylinder &#8216;Monobloc&#8217; pump. It was a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydropower\">hydropowered<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water\">water<\/a>-raising <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine\">machine<\/a> incorporating <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valve\">valves<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Suction\">suction<\/a> and delivery pipes, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piston\">piston<\/a> rods with <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead\">lead<\/a> weights, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trip_hammer\">trip<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lever\">levers<\/a> with <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pin_(device)\">pin<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joint\">joints<\/a>, and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cam\">cams<\/a> on the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Axle\">axle<\/a> of a water-driven <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scoop_(tool)\">scoop<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_wheel\">wheel<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-32\"><sup>[33<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Mechanical clocks<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Windup_alarm_clock.jpg\">[35][36]<\/a>The first user adjusted mechanical <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_clock\">alarm clock<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spring_(device)\">spring<\/a>-driven <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronomical_clock\">astronomical clock<\/a> was invented by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> in the 16th century.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_clock\"><strong>Alarm clock<\/strong><\/a><strong>, mechanical alarm clock, <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Astronomical_clock\"><strong>astronomical clock<\/strong><\/a><strong> with alarm<\/strong>: The first user adjusted mechanical alarm clock was described in 1559 by <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf\">Taqi al-Din<\/a>, who developed a mechanical astronomical clock employing an alarm arrangement, which was capable of sounding at a specified time, achieved by means of placing a peg on the dial wheel to when one wants the alarm heard and by producing an automated ringing device at the specified time. He described it in his book, <em>The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks<\/em> (<em>Al-Kaw\u0101kib al-durriyya f\u012b wadh&#8217; al-bank\u0101mat al-dawriyya<\/em>), published that year.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-70\"><sup>[71]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Spring-powered <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Astronomical_clock\"><strong>astronomical clock<\/strong><\/a>: In <em>The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> invented the first <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Astronomical_clock\">astronomical clock<\/a> to be powered by springs. This was also one of the first spring-powered mechanical clocks in general, developed around the same time as Peter Henlein in 1556.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Hassani-71\"><sup>[72]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Pocket watch, spring-powered watch, watch measured in minutes<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> also developed one of the first spring-powered pocket watches,<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;cite_note-Hill-72\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> shortly after the first such watch was developed by Peter Henlein in 1524. Taqi al-Din&#8217;s watch, however, was the first to measure time in minutes, by having three dials for the hours, degrees and minutes.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Hassani-71\"><sup>[72]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wall_clock.jpg\">[37][38]<\/a>In the 16th century, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din\">Taqi al-Din<\/a>invented a mechanical &#8220;observational <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clock\">clock<\/a>&#8221; with three<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dial_(measurement)\">dials<\/a> that measure the time in hours, minutes and seconds.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Observational <\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Clock\"><strong>clock<\/strong><\/a><strong>, three-dial clock, clock measured in seconds<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf\">Taqi al-Din<\/a> invented the &#8220;observational clock&#8221;, which he described as &#8220;a mechanical clock with <strong>three dials<\/strong> which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds.&#8221; This was the first clock to measure time in seconds, and was used for <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam\">astronomical purposes<\/a>, specifically for measuring the right ascension of the stars. This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-73\"><sup>[74]<\/sup><\/a> At the <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Istanbul_observatory_of_Taqi_al-Din\">Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din<\/a>, he further improved his observational clock, using only one dial to represent the hours, minutes and seconds, describing it as &#8220;a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-74\"><sup>[75]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Contemporary technology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>5V\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium_battery\"><strong>lithium battery<\/strong><\/a>: Since its introduction by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sony\">Sony<\/a>\u00a0in 1991, the lithium battery has been restricted to the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_cell\">cell<\/a>\u00a0potential of 3.6 &#8211; 3.8 V (commercially called 4 V lithium batteries) due to the limitation of Li\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anode\">anode<\/a>\u00a0potential. Construction of 5 V lithium batteries could yield higher power density batteries, and thus smaller devices. In 2004, Eftekhari fabricated an all-solid state lithium battery with 5 V potential.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-29\"><sup>[30<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><strong>Cycle-powered horse clipper<\/strong>: Invented by <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/India\">Indian<\/a> barber Mohammad Idris and popularized by 2009 <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bollywood\">Bollywood<\/a> film <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/3_Idiots\"><em>3 Idiots<\/em><\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-idiots-75\"><sup>[76]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemistry\"><strong>Electrochemical<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanotechnology\"><strong>nanotechnology<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanotube\"><strong>carbon nanotube<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0mass-production<\/strong>: See\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Physical_sciences\">Physical sciences<\/a>\u00a0below.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_laser\"><strong>Gas laser<\/strong><\/a>: Invented in 1960 by the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iranian<\/a>\u00a0physicist\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ali_Javan\">Ali Javan<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_vehicle\"><strong>Hydrogen-powered<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0three-wheeled\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automobile\"><strong>automobile<\/strong><\/a>: The Z.CAR, the first hydrogen-powered three-wheeled automobile, was developed by the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iraq\">Iraqi<\/a>\u00a0engineer\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zaha_Hadid\">Zaha Hadid<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrared\"><strong>Infrared<\/strong><\/a><strong> laser cane\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/walking_stick\"><strong>walking stick<\/strong><\/a>: In 2010, three <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Palestine\">Palestinian<\/a> schoolgirls, 14 year-old Asil Abu Lil and her two classmates, invented a walking cane that utilizes infrared technology to alert blind people of obstacles and drop-offs. The girls were among the finalists in a prestigious science fair in <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/California\">California<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/technology\/palestinian-girls-invent-laser-cane-1.897696\">[39]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-glaring_headlamp\"><strong>Non-glaring headlamp<\/strong><\/a>: This is a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Headlamp\">headlamp<\/a>\u00a0with a continuous long-distance\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illumination\">illumination<\/a>\u00a0without\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glare_(vision)\">glaring<\/a>\u00a0effects. It was invented in\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkey\">Turkey<\/a>\u00a0by Prof. Dr. Turhan Al\u00e7elik, and won the silver medal at the IENA Invention Fair at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuremberg\">Nuremberg<\/a>,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-30\"><sup>[31<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup>\u00a0and the technical jury&#8217;s first prize at the 34th International Exhibition Of Invention, New Techniques And Products, at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geneva\">Geneva<\/a>,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-31\"><sup>[32<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup>\u00a0in 2006.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Scooter-powered flour mill<\/strong>: Invented by Indian painter Jahangir Painter and popularized by 2009 <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bollywood\">Bollywood<\/a> film <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/3_Idiots\"><em>3 Idiots<\/em><\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-idiots-75\"><sup>[76]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vertically_rising_ladder\"><strong>Vertically rising ladder<\/strong><\/a>: This was invented in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkey\">Turkey<\/a> by Murat Nural and won the gold medal at the IENA Invention Fair at <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuremberg\">Nuremberg<\/a> in 2007. It was designed to climb high points and facilitate suspending there. The user who inserts his\/her feet on the movable climbers moves his\/her feet backward and forward and climbs upward on the steps. When the user wants to suspend, he\/she fixes the climber on the step. The same procedure is followed reversely while getting down. Thanks to its movable legs, it will be possible to work on it for long time without getting tired, and allows easy operation on rough grounds. It also offers the opportunity to use both hands while on the ladder and easy operation on narrow points. It is also easy to keep and transport thanks to its small body, and there is no need for someone else to hold the ladders while one climbs on higher points on the ladder. It will be easy to carry the materials thanks to its hanger, and due to the fact that its legs on the ground are parallel to the ground it is not buried into the ground, so that it can be used to pick fruits up in the gardens. It also helps the operator to work against the wall when he\/she wants to hang something on the wall, and it enables easy operation at angular spaces since the legs on the ground can be curved.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-34\"><sup>[35<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Military<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autocannon\"><strong>Autocannon<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>multi-<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gun_barrel\"><strong>barrel<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gun\"><strong>gun<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fathullah_Shirazi\">Fathullah Shirazi<\/a> (c. 1582), a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persian_people\">Persian<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_India\">Indian<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymath\">polymath<\/a> and mechanical engineer who worked for <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akbar_the_Great\">Akbar the Great<\/a> in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mughal_Empire\">Mughal Empire<\/a>, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun. As opposed to the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polybolos\">polybolos<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Repeating_crossbow\">repeating crossbows<\/a> used earlier in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_Greece\">ancient Greece<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China\">China<\/a>, respectively, Shirazi&#8217;s rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-40\"><sup>[41<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tipu_Sultan_BL.jpg\">[40][41]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tipu_Sultan\">Tipu Sultan<\/a> invented the first<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron\">iron<\/a>-cased and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metal\">metal<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cylinder_(firearms)\">cylinder<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket_artillery\">rocket artillery<\/a> in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mysore\">Mysore<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/India\">India<\/a>, alongside his father <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyder_Ali\">Hyder Ali<\/a>, in the 1780s.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Mysorean_rockets\"><strong>Iron-cased<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metal\"><strong>metal<\/strong><\/a><strong>&#8211;<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cylinder_(firearms)\"><strong>cylinder<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket_artillery\"><strong>rocket artillery<\/strong><\/a>: The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket\">rocket<\/a> artillery were developed by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tipu_Sultan\">Tipu Sultan<\/a>, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian <a href=\"http:\/\/Kingdom\">of Mysore Kingdom of Mysore<\/a>, and his father <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyder_Ali\">Hyder Ali<\/a>, in the 1780s. He successfully used these metal-cylinder rockets against the larger forces of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_East_India_Company\">British East India Company<\/a> during the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anglo-Mysore_Wars\">Anglo-Mysore Wars<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Mysorean_rockets\">Mysore rockets<\/a> of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu&#8217;s eventual defeat in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War\">Fourth Anglo-Mysore War<\/a> and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congreve_rocket\">Congreve rocket<\/a>, which was soon put into use in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napoleonic_Wars\">Napoleonic Wars<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-41\"><sup>[42<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guilmartin, Jr. in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclopedia_Britannica\"><em>Encyclopedia Britannica<\/em><\/a> (2008): &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyder_Ali\">Hyder Ali<\/a>, prince of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mysore\">Mysore<\/a>, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combustion\">combustion<\/a> powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali&#8217;s son, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tippu_Sultan\">Tippu Sultan<\/a>, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seringapatam\">Seringapatam<\/a> in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-r.26ms-42\"><sup>[43<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marching_band\"><strong>Marching band<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_band\"><strong>military band<\/strong><\/a>: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ottoman_military_band\">Ottoman military band<\/a>, performed by the<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Janissary\">Janissary<\/a> since the 16th century.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-43\"><sup>[44<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Navigational technology<\/p>\n<p>Water transport<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Submarine\"><strong>Submarine<\/strong><\/a>: On October 1, 1720, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ottoman\">Ottoman<\/a> dockyard architect Ibrahim Efendi invented a submarine called the <em>tahtelbahir<\/em>. The Ottoman writer Seyyid Vehbi, in his <em>Surname-i-Humayun<\/em>, compared this submarine to an <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alligator\">alligator<\/a>. He recorded that during the circumcision ceremony for Sultan <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ahmed_III\">Ahmed III<\/a>&#8216;s sons, &#8220;the alligator-like submarine slowly emerged on the water and moved slowly to the sultan, and after staying on the sea for half an hour, submerged in the sea again to the great surprise of the public; then emerged one hour later, with five people walking outside the mouth of this alligator-like submarine, with trays of rice and <em>zerde<\/em> (a dish of sweetened rice) on their heads.&#8221; He explained the technical information concerning the submarine &#8220;submerging in the sea and the crew being able to breath through pipes while under the sea&#8221;.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Terzioglu-49\"><sup>[50<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volitan\"><strong>Volitan<\/strong><\/a>: This is the first fully <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sustainability\">sustainable<\/a> boat. It was invented in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkey\">Turkey<\/a> by Dr. Hakan G\u00fcrsu and S\u00f6z\u00fcm Do\u011fan at the DesignNobis Studio, and won the best nautical\/boat award and best transportation vehicle award at the International Design Awards in 2007. It is equipped with double layer <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solar_cell\">solar cell<\/a> panels, and uses both <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_power\">wind power<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solar_energy\">solar energy<\/a>. It has a very light weight, stiff structure, its shell is made of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_fiber\">carbon fiber<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epoxy\">epoxy<\/a> resin, and it has an <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UV_coating\">ultraviolet resistant coating<\/a>. It is also connected to a twin 220 HP\/DC <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_motor\">electric motor<\/a> which has two suspended wings to help manoeuvre the ship, and in addition, a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydraulic\">hydraulic<\/a>\/<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Servo_drive\">servo<\/a> system located in the wings activates the Volitan&#8217;s unique performance <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sail\">sail<\/a> system.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-50\"><sup>[51<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sail_plan_xebec.svg\">[42][43]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sail\">Sail<\/a> plan for a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polacca\">polacca<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xebec\">xebec<\/a>, first built by the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbary_pirate\">Barbary pirates<\/a>\u00a0around the 16th century.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xebec\"><strong>Xebec<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polacca\"><strong>Polacca<\/strong><\/a>: The xebec and polacre <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sailing_ship\">sailing ships<\/a> used around the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mediterranean_Sea\">M erranean Sea<\/a> from the 16th to the 19th centuries originated from the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbary_pirate\">Barbary pirates<\/a>, who successfully used them for <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naval_warfare\">naval warfare<\/a> against European ships at the time. A combination of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fore-and-aft_rig\">fore and aft<\/a> sails and<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aerodynamics\">aerodynamics<\/a>, along with the improved square sail on the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polacca\">Polacca<\/a>, allowed these ships to sail much closer to the wind than European and American ships. An expert on the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbary_pirate\">Barbary pirates<\/a> said that their ships had guns at the bow and stern. \u201cThey would approach, pounding away, and it took too long for our square riggers to bring the broadside guns around. The Arabs had oars and a sail arrangement that meant they were able to turn more quickly and could flee closer to the wind than we could chase them.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Bruxelles-51\"><sup>[52<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Aviation and Flight<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Artificial <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wing\"><strong>wings<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Abbas_Ibn_Firnas\">Abbas Ibn Firnas<\/a>&#8216; <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hang_glider\">hang glider<\/a> in 875 was the first to have artificial <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wing\">wings<\/a>, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Evliya_%C3%87elebi\">Evliya \u00c7elebi<\/a> in the early 17th century, <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Hezarfen_Ahmet_Celebi\">Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi<\/a> was the first <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aviator\">aviator<\/a> to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Terzioglu-76\"><sup>[77]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Artificially-powered <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\"><strong>aircraft<\/strong><\/a>,\u00a0<strong>manned <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket\"><strong>rocket<\/strong><\/a><strong>, rocket flight,\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parachute\"><strong>parachute<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jet_engine\"><strong>jet engine<\/strong><\/a>: According to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Evliya_%C3%87elebi&quot; \\o &quot;Evliya \u00c7elebi\">Evliya \u00c7elebi<\/a>\u00a0in the early 17th century, <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Lagari_Hasan_%C3%87elebi\">Lagari Hasan \u00c7elebi<\/a> launched himself in the air in a seven-<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wing\">winged<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket\">rocket<\/a>, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gunpowder\">gunpowder<\/a>. He\u00a0launched himself in a rocket from\u00a0Sarayburnu, the point below\u00a0Topkap\u0131 Palace.\u00a0The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV&#8217;s daughter in 1633.\u00a0Lagari proclaimed before launch that he would &#8220;speak with\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Jesus\">Jesus<\/a>\u00a0in the heavens&#8221;. Evliya reported that Lagari made a soft landing in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bosporus\">Bosporus<\/a> by using the wings attached to his body as a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parachute\">parachute<\/a> after the gunpowder was consumed, foreshadowing the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sea\">sea<\/a>-landing methods of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronaut\">astronauts<\/a> with parachutes after their voyages into <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outer_space\">outer space<\/a>. Lagari&#8217;s flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached was around 300 metres (980 ft). This was the first known example of a manned rocket and an artificially-powered <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\">aircraft<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Terzioglu-76\"><sup>[77]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-77\"><sup>[78]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0He was rewarded by the Sultan with gold and the rank of\u00a0sipahi.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-78\"><sup>[79]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Astronautics and Spaceflight<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kerimov21.jpg\">[44][45]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerim_Kerimov\">Kerim Kerimov<\/a>, a founder of the<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soviet_space_program\">Soviet space program<\/a>, was a lead architect behind the first <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\">satellite<\/a>and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_spaceflight\">human spaceflight<\/a>, and launched the first <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_dock\">space docks<\/a> and<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_station\">space stations<\/a>, in the 20th century.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\"><strong>Satellite<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_spaceflight\"><strong>human spaceflight<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_dock\"><strong>space dock<\/strong><\/a><strong>, <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_station\"><strong>space station<\/strong><\/a>: In the 20th century, Muslim <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rocket_scientist\">rocket scientists<\/a> from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soviet_Union\">Soviet<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_Asia\">Central Asia<\/a> were involved in research on <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronautics\">astronautics<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_exploration\">space exploration<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerim_Kerimov\">Kerim Kerimov<\/a> from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azerbaijan\">Azerbaijan<\/a> was one of the most important key figures in early space exploration. He was one of the founders of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soviet_space_program\">Soviet space program<\/a>, one of the lead architects behind the first <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\">satellite<\/a> (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sputnik_1\">Sputnik 1<\/a>)<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-44\"><sup>[45<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> and the first human spaceflight (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vostok_1\">Vostok 1<\/a>), and responsible for the launch of the first space docks (the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cosmos_186\">Cosmos 186<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cosmos_188\">Cosmos 188<\/a>) and the first space stations (the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salyut\">Salyut<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mir\">Mir<\/a> series).<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Bond-45\"><sup>[46<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-46\"><sup>[47<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> The Mir, a consistently inhabited long-term research space station, also holds the record for the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spaceflight_records\">longest continuous human presence in space<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Bond-45\"><sup>[46<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moon_landing\"><strong>Moon landing<\/strong><\/a>: From 1967 to 1972, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Farouk_El-Baz\">Farouk El-Baz<\/a> from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egypt\">Egypt<\/a> worked for <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NASA\">NASA<\/a> and was involved in the first Moon landings with the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apollo_program\">Apollo program<\/a>, where he was secretary of the <em>Landing Site Selection Committee<\/em>, <em>Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography<\/em>, chairman of the <em>Astronaut Training Group<\/em>, and assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-47\"><sup>[48<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomedical_research\"><strong>Biomedical research<\/strong><\/a><strong> in <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outer_space\"><strong>outer space<\/strong><\/a>: In 2007, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheikh_Muszaphar_Shukor\">Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor<\/a> from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malaysia\">Malaysia<\/a> travelled to the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Space_Station\">International Space Station<\/a> with his<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expedition_16\">Exp ion 16<\/a> crew aboard <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soyuz_TMA-11\">Soyuz TMA-11<\/a> as part of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Angkasawan_program\">Angkasawan program<\/a> during <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ramadan\">Ramadan<\/a>. He was both an astronaut and an <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orthopedic_surgeon\">orthopedic surgeon<\/a>, and is most notable for being the first to perform <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomedical_research\">biomedical research<\/a> in space, mainly related to the characteristics and <strong>growth of liver\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cancer\"><strong>cancer<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leukemia\"><strong>leukemia<\/strong><\/a><strong> cells<\/strong> and the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crystallization\"><strong>crystallization<\/strong><\/a><strong> of various <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein\"><strong>proteins<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microbe\"><strong>microbes<\/strong><\/a><strong> in space<\/strong>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-48\"><sup>[49<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><strong>Private <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spaceflight\"><strong>spaceflight<\/strong><\/a><strong> research<\/strong>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anousheh_Ansari\">Anousheh Ansari<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amir_Ansari\">Amir Ansari<\/a> set up the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ansari_X_Prize\">Ansari X Prize<\/a> to encourage private spaceflight research.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_mechanics\"><strong>Quantum<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/spacecraft_propulsion\"><strong>spacecraft propulsion<\/strong><\/a>: The 19 year-old Muslim\u00a0female\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Egyptian_astronomy\">Egyptian physicist<\/a>,\u00a0Aisha Mustafa, invented a method to propel spacecraft using\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/quantum_mechanics\">quantum mechanics<\/a>,\u00a0allowing greater efficiency and faster <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spaceflight\">space travel<\/a> than the ordinary rocket engines currently used for spacecraft. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/sciencetech\/article-2148877\/The-latest-entrant-space-race--Egypt-19-year-old-student-invents-futuristic-warp-drive-satellites.html\">[46]<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Philosophy\"><\/span><strong>Philosophy<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_philosophy\"><em>Islamic philosophy<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_psychology\"><em>Islamic psychology<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existentialism\"><strong>Existentialism<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existence_precedes_essence\"><strong>existence precedes essence<\/strong><\/a>: In the early 17th century, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iranian_philosophy\">Persian philosopher<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mulla_Sadra\">Mulla Sadra<\/a>, founded the school of<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transcendent_theosophy\">transcendent theosophy<\/a> and developed the concept of existence precedes essence.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-52\"><sup>[53<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> His work bought &#8220;a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reality\">reality<\/a>&#8221; and created &#8220;a major transition from <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Essentialism\">essentialism<\/a> to existentialism&#8221; in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_philosophy\">Islamic philosophy<\/a>, several centuries before this occurred in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_philosophy\">Western philosophy<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-53\"><sup>[54<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sciences<\/p>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_science_and_technology\"><em>Islamic science and technology<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:HLA-B*5101.png\">[47][48]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beh%C3%A7et%27s_disease\">Beh\u00e7et&#8217;s disease<\/a>, strongly associated with <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HLA-B51\">HLA-B51<\/a>, was discovered by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hulusi_Beh%C3%A7et\">Hulusi Beh\u00e7et<\/a> in 1924.<\/p>\n<p>Biomedical sciences<\/p>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_medicine\"><em>Islamic medicine<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker\"><strong>Artificial cardiac pacemaker<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet_physical_layer&quot; \\o &quot;wikipedia:Ethernet physical layer\">ethernet cable<\/a><\/strong>: During Israel&#8217;s\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operation_Protective_Edge\">Operation Protective Edge<\/a>\u00a0siege of Gaza in 2014, where hundreds of Palestinians have been killed, local Palestinian medics at Gaza hospitals have been improvising with new medical techniques in order to save lives. For example, Dr. Allam Nayef &#8220;made a special wire for cardiac pacing from a spliced Ethernet cable.&#8221; <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/wires\/ap\/article-2699023\/Amid-bloodshed-frenetic-Gaza-hospital-improvises.html\">[49]<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/nymag.com\/daily\/intelligencer\/2014\/07\/why-israel-is-losing-the-american-media-war.html\">[50]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioplastic\"><strong>Banana bioplastic<\/strong><\/a>: In 2013, 16 year-old\u00a0Turkish\u00a0female inventor\u00a0Elif Bilgin\u00a0discovered how to recycle banana waste as bioplastic.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.illumemagazine.com\/zine\/comments\/articleDetail.php?16-year-old-Turkish-Teen-Makes-Bioplastic-from-Banana-Peels-14386\">[51]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beh%C3%A7et%27s_disease\"><strong>Beh\u00e7et&#8217;s disease<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>: Named after <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hulusi_Beh%C3%A7et\">Hulusi Beh\u00e7et<\/a> (1889-1948), the Turkish <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dermatologist\">dermatologist<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientist\">scientist<\/a> who first recognized the syndrome in one of his patients in 1924 and reported his research on the disease in <em>Journal of Skin and Venereal Diseases<\/em> in 1936.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-WhoNamedIt-54\"><sup>[55<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-55\"><sup>[56<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomedical_research\"><strong>Biomedical research<\/strong><\/a><strong> in <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outer_space\"><strong>outer space<\/strong><\/a>: See <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Astronautics\">Astronautics<\/a> above.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome\"><strong>Chronic fatigue syndrome<\/strong><\/a><strong> treatment<\/strong>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biopsychosocial_model\"><strong>biopsychosocial model<\/strong><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_sociology\"><strong>medical sociology<\/strong><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychosocial\"><strong>psychosocial<\/strong><\/a><strong> development<\/strong>, and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurochemical\"><strong>neurochemical<\/strong><\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathology\"><strong>pathology<\/strong><\/a>: Dr. Muhammad B. Yunus, a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islam_in_America\">Muslim American<\/a> physician who practices <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_medicine\">internal medicine<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rheumatology\">rheumatology<\/a>,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-56\"><sup>[57<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> made important advances in the understanding of the chronic fatigue syndromes, the biopsychosocial model, medical sociology, neurology, psychosocial development, and neurochemical pathology.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-57\"><sup>[58<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> His &#8220;biopsychosocial perspective&#8221; of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fibromyalgia\">fibromyalgia<\/a> and other chronic fatigue syndromes is the &#8220;only way to synthesize the disparate contributions of such variables as genes and adverse childhood experiences, life stress and distress, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder\">posttraumatic stress disorder<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mood_disorder\">mood disorders<\/a>, self-efficacy for pain control, catastrophizing, coping style, and social support into the evolving picture of central nervous system dysfunction vis-a-vis chronic pain and fatigue.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Winfield-58\"><sup>[59<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Neemtree.jpg\">[52][53]<\/a>Compounds from the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neem\">Neem<\/a> tree were first extracted by<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salimuzzaman_Siddiqui\">Salimuzzaman Siddiqui<\/a> in the 20th century.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Extraction of compounds from <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neem\"><strong>Neem<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rauwolfia\"><strong>Rauwolfia<\/strong><\/a>: See <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Physical_sciences\"><em>Physical sciences<\/em><\/a> below.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fibromyalgia\"><strong>Fibromyalgia<\/strong><\/a><strong> treatment<\/strong>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serotonergic\"><strong>serotonergic<\/strong><\/a><strong> and norepinephric <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drug\"><strong>drugs<\/strong><\/a>, and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurohormone\"><strong>neurohormonal<\/strong><\/a><strong> mechanisms with central <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensitization\"><strong>sensitization<\/strong><\/a>: In 1981, Dr. Muhammad B. Yunus, published the &#8220;first controlled study of the clinical characteristics&#8221; of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fibromyalgia\">fibromyalgia<\/a> syndrome, for which he is regarded as &#8220;the father of our modern view of fibromyalgia.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Winfield-58\"><sup>[59<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> His work was the &#8220;first controlled <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_trial\">clinical study<\/a>&#8221; of fibromyalgia &#8220;with validation of known<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symptom\">symptoms<\/a> and tender points&#8221; and he also proposed &#8220;the first data-based criteria.&#8221; In 1984, he proposed the important concept that the fibromyalgia syndrome and other similar conditions are interconnected. He showed serotonergic and norepinephric drugs to be effective in 1986, published criteria for fibromyalgia in 1990 and developed neurohormonal mechanisms with central sensitization in the 1990s.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-59\"><sup>[60<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glycosylated_hemoglobin\"><strong>Glycosylated hemoglobin<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iranian<\/a> scientist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel_Rahbar\">Samuel Rahbar<\/a> was a pioneer in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hematology\">hematology<\/a> and the understanding of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diabetes\">diabetes<\/a>. In 1969, he discovered glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C), a form of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoglobin\">hemoglobin<\/a> used primarily to identify <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blood_plasma\">plasma<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glucose\">glucose<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concentration\">concentration<\/a> over time. He was also the first to describe its increase in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diabetes\">diabetes<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-60\"><sup>[61<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transplant_rejection\"><strong>Graft rejection<\/strong> and <strong>transplant rejection<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0Discovered by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lebanon\">Lebanese<\/a> biologist and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine\">Nobel Prize<\/a> winner\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Medawar\">Peter Medawar<\/a> in the mid-20th century.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV\"><strong>HIV<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AIDS\"><strong>AIDS<\/strong><\/a><strong> treatment<\/strong>: In <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virology\">virology<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yemen\">Yemeni<\/a> scientist Sheikh <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdul_Majeed_al-Zindani\">Abdul Majeed al-Zindani<\/a> is involved in finding a treatment for HIV and AIDS using unorthodox methods inspired by the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qur%27an\">Qur&#8217;an<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hadith\">Hadiths<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-61\"><sup>[62<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> In 2007, he claimed to have found a remedy for HIV and AIDS and cited the Hadiths as his inspiration.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-62\"><sup>[63<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> He gave a speech praising the quality of scientific and medical research carried out at <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iman_University\">Iman University<\/a>, claiming that they had successfully treated many cases of AIDS. In twenty cases, al-Zandani said that the virus had vanished completely without any side effects and called on the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UN\">UN<\/a>, which &#8220;spends enormous amounts of money to fight the disease,&#8221; to send &#8220;its senior scientists to review [the university&#8217;s] findings.\u201d No study of these claims have been done since 2005 when initially announced and according to doctors in Saudi Arabia, a patients who was told of being viral-free tested positive for HIV.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immune_tolerance\"><strong>Immune tolerance<\/strong> and\u00a0<strong>acquired immune tolerance<\/strong><\/a>: Discovered by Lebanese biologist and Nobel Prize winner\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Medawar\">Peter Medawar<\/a> in the mid-20th century.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_technology\"><strong>Medical technology<\/strong><\/a>: Iranian physician and engineer <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toffy_Musivand\">Toffy Musivand<\/a> invented a variety of medical technology, including the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_heart\"><strong>artificial cardiac pump<\/strong><\/a> as treatment for <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heart_failure\">heart failure<\/a>, &#8220;<strong>remote power transfer for implantable <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device\"><strong>medical devices<\/strong><\/a>, remote patient monitoring (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemedicine\"><strong>telemedicine<\/strong><\/a>), <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluid_dynamics\"><strong>biofluid dynamics<\/strong><\/a><strong> to reduce\/eliminate <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thrombosis\"><strong>thrombosis<\/strong><\/a> in blood conducting devices, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simulated_patient\"><strong>patient care simulation<\/strong><\/a><strong> centre<\/strong>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Detection\"><strong>detection<\/strong><\/a><strong> devices<\/strong> and methods for detection, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_situ\"><strong>in situ<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sterilization_(surgical_procedure)\"><strong>sterilization<\/strong><\/a>, medical devices (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Failure_analysis\"><strong>failure analysis<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>regulatory process<\/strong>), and<strong>medical <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\"><strong>sensors<\/strong><\/a>.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-63\"><sup>[64<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus\"><strong>MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) coronavirus<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>:\u00a0The first confirmed cases were reported in an Amman, Jordan hospital among health care workers and nursing staff in April 2012, where the cases were determined to be H2H transmission. Later a 60-year-old male patient with acute pneumonia and acute renal failure, who passed away in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia on 24 June 2012.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-rapid-79\"><sup>[80]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Egyptian virologist Dr. Ali Mohamed Zaki isolated and identified a previously unknown coronavirus from the man&#8217;s lungs.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-zaki8nov2012-80\"><sup>[81]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-thechart.blogs-81\"><sup>[82]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-82\"><sup>[83]<\/sup><\/a> Dr. Zaki then posted his findings on 24 September 2012 on ProMED-mail.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-thechart.blogs-81\"><sup>[82]<\/sup><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-promedmail.org-83\"><sup>[84][84]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beh%C3%A7et%27s_disease\"><strong>Neuro-Behcet&#8217;s disease<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>: In 1991, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saudi_Arabia\">Saudi<\/a> medical researchers discovered &#8220;neuro-Behcet&#8217;s disease&#8221;,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Ravi-64\"><sup>[65<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> a <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurological\">neurological<\/a> involvement in Behcet&#8217;s disease, considered one of the most devastating manifestations of the disease.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-65\"><sup>[66<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> In 1989, Saudi neurologists also discovered &#8220;neurobrucellosis&#8221;, a neurological involvement in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brucellosis\">brucellosis<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Ravi-64\"><sup>[65<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organ_transplantation\"><strong>Organ transplantation<\/strong><\/a>: Modern organ transplants <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Medawar\">Peter Medawar<\/a> was awarded his <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine\">Nobel Prize<\/a> in 1960 for his work in tissue grafting which is the basis of organ transplants, and his discovery of acquired immunological tolerance. This work was used in dealing with skin grafts required after burns. Medawar&#8217;s work resulted in a shift of emphasis in the science of immunology from one that attempts to deal with the fully developed immunity mechanism to one that attempts to alter the immunity mechanism itself, as in the attempt to suppress the body&#8217;s rejection of organ transplants.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parthenogenesis\"><strong>Parthenogenesis<\/strong><\/a><strong> in <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shark\"><strong>sharks<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>: In October 2008, Mahmoud Shivji discovered the possibility of parthenogenesis in a female shark and proved it through <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\">genetic<\/a> evidence. He &#8220;made the groundbreaking scientific discovery confirming \u2014 for the first time ever \u2014 a virgin birth in a female shark&#8221;, and proved &#8220;through <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_profiling\">DNA testing<\/a> that the offspring of a female<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blacktip_shark\">blacktip shark<\/a> named \u201cTidbit\u201d contained no genetic material from a father.&#8221;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-66\"><sup>[67<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-67\"><sup>[68<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biofuel\"><strong>Plastic biofuel<\/strong><\/a>: In 2012, 16 year-old\u00a0Egyptian\u00a0female inventor\u00a0Azza Abdel Hamid Faiad\u00a0discovered how to recycle plastic as biofuel.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.mnn.com\/earth-matters\/energy\/blogs\/16-year-old-discovers-catalyst-to-turn-egypts-plastic-waste-into-biofuel\">[54]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alternative_theories_of_quantum_evolution\"><strong>Quantum evolution<\/strong><\/a>:\u00a0Iraqi physicist Jim Al-Khalili subsequently published their own theory in 1999 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-McFadden_and_Al-Khalili-84\"><sup>[85]<\/sup><\/a> in which they proposed a mechanism based on enhanced decoherence of quantum states that interact strongly with the environment. McFadden published his book <em>Quantum Evolution<\/em> in 2000.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-McFadden-85\"><sup>[86]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Formal sciences<\/p>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_logic\"><em>Islamic logic<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_mathematics\"><em>Islamic mathematics<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal\"><strong>Fractal<\/strong><\/a><strong> geometry in <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_analysis\"><strong>textual analysis<\/strong><\/a>: In <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2006\">2006<\/a>, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iranian<\/a> scientist Ali Eftekhari was the first to utilize fractal geometry in the analysis of texts. In a seminal paper, he applied the concept of fractal geometry for analysis of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Shakespeare\">William Shakespeare<\/a>&#8216;s works. He found that fractality of literature is a measurable factor. For the case of Shakespeare&#8217;s works, the fractality can be categorized according to some factor like the manuscript length, the type of writing (e.g. tragedy, comedy, etc). This theory was demonstrated by comparing the results with similar statistical methods. This finding can provide a new opportunity for the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_analysis\">mathematical analysis<\/a> of literature. He also found that, like fractal dimension, it is possible to calculate <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zipf%27s_law\">Zipf<\/a>dimension, which is a useful parameter in the analysis of texts.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Eftekhari-68\"><sup>[69<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lotfi_A._Zadeh(2004).jpg\">[55][56]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh\">Lotfi Asker Zadeh<\/a>, founder of<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_mathematics\">fuzzy mathematics<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\">fuzzy logic<\/a> and<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_set\">fuzzy set<\/a> theory.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_mathematics\"><strong>Fuzzy mathematics<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_set\"><strong>Fuzzy set<\/strong><\/a>: In 1960, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iranian<\/a> mathematician <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh\">Lotfi Asker Zadeh<\/a> founded <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_set\">fuzzy set<\/a> theory as an extension of the classical notion of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Set_(mathematics)\">set<\/a> and he founded the field of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_Mathematics\">Fuzzy Mathematics<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\"><strong>Fuzzy logic<\/strong><\/a>: In 1973, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh\">Lotfi Asker Zadeh<\/a> founded the field of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\">fuzzy logic<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superalgebra\"><strong>Supergeometry<\/strong><\/a>: This is the geometric basis for <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supersymmetry\">supersymmetry<\/a>, and was discovered by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> in 1974.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-69\"><sup>[70<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supermanifold\"><strong>Supermanifold<\/strong><\/a>: The theory of supermanifolds was first proposed in 1974 by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> as a geometrical framework for understanding<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supersymmetry\">supersymmetry<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-70\"><sup>[71<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superspace\"><strong>Superspace<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superfield\"><strong>Superfield<\/strong><\/a>: The notion of superspace was introduced in 1974 by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a>. He also introduced the concept of superfield, a<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scalar_field\">scalar field<\/a> on superspace.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-71\"><sup>[72<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Physical sciences<\/p>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam\"><em>Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_physics\"><em>Islamic physics<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Accurate <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earthquake_prediction\"><strong>earthquake prediction<\/strong><\/a><strong> method<\/strong>: In 2002, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azerbaijan\">Azerbaijani<\/a> scientist Kerim Kerimov Mammadhan patented a new method for accurately forecasting earthquakes four to twelve hours before the process begins.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-72\"><sup>[73<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-73\"><sup>[74<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Afshar_experiment\"><strong>Afshar experiment<\/strong><\/a>: An <a href=\"https:\/\/history.wikia.org\/wiki\/Optics\">optical<\/a> experiment, devised and carried out by <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shahriar_Afshar\">Shahriar Afshar<\/a> in 2004, which investigates the <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principle_of_complementarity\">principle of complementarity<\/a> in <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_mechanics\">quantum mechanics<\/a>.<a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-Afshar2005-86\"><sup>[87]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemistry\"><strong>Electrochemical<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanotechnology\"><strong>nanotechnology<\/strong><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanotube\"><strong>carbon nanotube<\/strong><\/a><strong> mass-production<\/strong>: In electrochemistry, the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iran\">Iranian<\/a> scientist Ali Eftekhari is regarded as a founder of electrochemical nanotechnology,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-74\"><sup>[75<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> particularly for developing a method for the mass production of carbon nanotubes.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-75\"><sup>[76<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;cite_note-76\">[77<\/a>]<\/sup> They were previously grown using a ceramic catalyst support. There are manufacturing and waste disposal problems associated with acid treatment to remove the ceramic-based catalyst support like MgO, SiO2, alumina, etc. Eftekhari developed a method for the mass production of carbon nanotubes. Tused water-soluble catalyst support to replace common ceramic-based catalyst supports. By this action, it is possible to avoid acid treatment and reach a production yield of about 3,000%. Another advantage of this novel method could be to control the shape of the carbon nanotubes by varying the catalyst support mixture.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_reaction\"><strong>Electrochemical reaction<\/strong><\/a>: This concept was developed by Ali Eftekhari, who showed that processes can be considered as <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal\">fractals<\/a> in 2006. In this theory it is possible to calculate fractal dimension for any process. Practically, he proposed a feasible technique for the estimation of the fractal dimension of electrochemical reactions. This mathematical factor can be used for the improvement of electrochemical reactions, e.g. in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuel_cell\">fuel cells<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-77\"><sup>[78<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroweak_interaction\"><strong>Electroweak interaction<\/strong><\/a>: In 1979, the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pakistan\">Pakistani<\/a> theoretical physicist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> received the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics\">Nobel Prize in Physics<\/a> for his pioneering work on the electroweak interaction theory, which is the mathematical and conceptual synthesis of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetism\">electromagnetic<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_interaction\">weak interactions<\/a>, and is now a mainstream <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unified_field_theory\"><strong>unified field theory<\/strong><\/a>. He showed how the weak nuclear force and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_electrodynamics\">quantum electrodynamics<\/a> could be merged into a single electroweak force. The electroweak interactions he proposed form the basis of the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_Model\"><strong>Standard Model<\/strong><\/a> in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_physics\">particle physics<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroweak_symmetry_breaking\"><strong>Electroweak symmetry breaking<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Weinberg\">Steven Weinberg<\/a> were the first to apply the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Higgs_mechanism\">Higgs mechanism<\/a> to the electroweak symmetry breaking.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Extraction of compounds from <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neem\"><strong>Neem<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rauwolfia\"><strong>Rauwolfia<\/strong><\/a>: In the 20th century, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salimuzzaman_Siddiqui\">Salimuzzaman Siddiqui<\/a> was a leading Pakistani scientist in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_products\">natural products<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemistry\">chemistry<\/a>. He is the pioneer in extracting chemical compunds from the Neem and Rauwolfia, and is also known for isolating novel chemical compunds from various other <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flora\">flora<\/a> in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indian_subcontinent\">Indian subcontinent<\/a>. As the director of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/H.E.J._Research_Institute_of_Chemistry\">H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry<\/a>, he carried out extensive research with a team of scientists on <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacology\">pharmacology<\/a> of various plants to extract a number of chemical substances of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medicinal\">medicinal<\/a> importance.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-78\"><sup>[79<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Femtochemistry\"><strong>Femtochemistry<\/strong><\/a>: The <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egypt\">Egyptian<\/a> chemist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ahmed_Zewail\">Ahmed Zewail<\/a> is awarded the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry\">Nobel Prize in Chemistry<\/a> for pioneering the field of femtochemistry. Zewail\u2019s technique uses flashes of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laser\">laser<\/a> light that last for a few femtoseconds. Femtochemistry is the area of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_chemistry\">physical chemistry<\/a> that addresses the short time period in which chemical reactions take place and investigates why some reactions occur but not others. Zewail\u2019s picture-taking technique made these investigations possible.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal\"><strong>Fractal<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemistry\"><strong>electrochemistry<\/strong><\/a>: In 2006, Ali Eftekhari carried out scientific research on the field of fractal <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geometry\">geometry<\/a> and applied it to different aspects of science, thus pioneering the concept of fractal electrochemistry. In a series of papers, he adapted the basic ideas for fractal analysis of electrochemical systems.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-79\"><sup>[80<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-80\"><sup>[81<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-81\"><sup>[82<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-82\"><sup>[83<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-83\"><sup>[84<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup> Based on novel approaches and correction of common mistakes in fractal analysis of electrode surfaces, he adopted a new application of fractal geometry in the realm of electrochemistry and for study of electrode surface fractality.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cumrun_Vafa_at_Harvard.JPG\">[57][58]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cumrun_Vafa\">Cumrun Vafa<\/a>, the 2008 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dirac_Prize\">Dirac Prize<\/a> recipient, pioneered the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/F-theory\">F-theory<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vafa-Witten_theorem\">Vafa-Witten theorem<\/a> and<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topological_string_theory\">topological string theory<\/a>, and discovered the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microscopic\">microscopic<\/a> origin of<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_hole\">black hole<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entropy\">entropy<\/a>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/F-theory\"><strong>F-theory<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vafa-Witten_theorem\"><strong>Vafa-Witten theorem<\/strong><\/a>: In 1997, the Iranian physicist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cumrun_Vafa\">Cumrun Vafa<\/a>, one of the leading <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/String_theorists\">string theorists<\/a> of modern times and who was awarded the 2008 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dirac_Prize\">Dirac Prize<\/a>, developed the F-theory and proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Kardar-Parisi-Zhang equation<\/strong>: In 2001, the Iranian physicist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mehran_Kardar\">Mehran Kardar<\/a> was awarded the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guggenheim_Fellowship\">Guggenheim Fellowship<\/a> prize for his development of the Kardar-Parisi-Zhang (KPZ) equation in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theoretical_physics\">theoretical physics<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_photon\"><strong>Magnetic photon<\/strong><\/a>: The magnetic photon was predicted in 1966 by Nobel laureate <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-84\"><sup>[85<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neutral_current\"><strong>Neutral current<\/strong><\/a><strong>, prediction of<\/strong>: The weak neutral current was proposed by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a>, alongside <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheldon_Glashow\">Sheldon Glashow<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Weinberg\">Steven Weinberg<\/a>, for which they were awarded the 1979 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics\">Nobel Prize in Physics<\/a> after it was confirmed in a 1974 neutrino experiment in the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gargamelle\">Gargamelle<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bubble_chamber\">bubble chamber<\/a> at<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERN\">CERN<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-85\"><sup>[86<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pati-Salam_model\"><strong>Pati-Salam model<\/strong><\/a>: A mainstream <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grand_Unification_Theory\"><strong>Grand Unification Theory<\/strong><\/a> proposed by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> in collaboration with <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jogesh_Pati\">Jogesh Pati<\/a> in 1974.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-86\"><sup>[87<\/sup><\/a><sup>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preon\"><strong>Preon<\/strong><\/a>: These are &#8220;point-like&#8221; particles, conceived to be subcomponents of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quark\">quarks<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lepton\">leptons<\/a>. The development a pre-<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quark\">quark<\/a> substructure date back to 1974 with a paper in <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_Review\"><em>Physical Review<\/em><\/a> by <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jogesh_Pati\">Jogesh Pati<\/a>, who both coined the term &#8220;preon&#8221;.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supermanifold\"><strong>Supermanifold<\/strong><\/a>: See <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Formal_sciences\">Formal sciences<\/a> above.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superspace\"><strong>Superspace<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superfield\"><strong>Superfield<\/strong><\/a>: See <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#Formal_sciences\">Formal sciences<\/a> above.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supersymmetry\"><strong>Supersymmetry<\/strong><\/a><strong> in <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_physics\"><strong>particle physics<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a>, Wess and Zumino were the first to succesfully apply supersymmetry to particle physics.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topological_string_theory\"><strong>Topological string theory<\/strong><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microscopic\"><strong>microscopic<\/strong><\/a><strong> origin of <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_hole\"><strong>black hole<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entropy\"><strong>entropy<\/strong><\/a>: Topological string theory was established by Iranian physicist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cumrun_Vafa\">Cumrun Vafa<\/a>. He has published numerous articles on topological string theories, and he is famous for his landmark paper about the microscopic origin of the black hole entropy.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultrashort_pulse\"><strong>Ultrashort pulse<\/strong><\/a><strong>, discovery of<\/strong>: The 1999 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry\">Nobel Prize in Chemistry<\/a> was awarded to <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ahmed_Zewail\">Ahmed Zewail<\/a> for using ultrashort pulses to observe <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_reaction\">chemical reactions<\/a> on the timescales they occur on, laying the foundations for the field of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Femtochemistry\">femtochemistry<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W_and_Z_bosons\"><strong>W and Z bosons<\/strong><\/a><strong>, postulation of<\/strong>: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a>&#8216;s <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroweak_interaction\">electroweak interaction<\/a> theory postulated the W bosons necessary to explain <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beta_decay\">beta decay<\/a> and a new Z boson that had never been observed before. The W and Z particles were later confirmed during an experiment at <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERN\">CERN<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Social sciences<\/p>\n<p><em>See also: <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_sociology\"><em>Islamic sociology<\/em><\/a><em>\u00a0and <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_economics_in_the_world\"><em>Islamic economics in the world<\/em><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mahbub-ul-Haq.jpg\">[59][60]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahbub_ul_Haq\">Mahbub ul Haq<\/a> developed the<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Development_Index\">Human Development Index<\/a> and founded the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Development_Report\">Human Development Report<\/a> in 1990.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Development_Index\"><strong>Human Development Index<\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Development_Report\"><strong>Human Development Report<\/strong><\/a>: In 1990, the <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pakistan\">Pakistani<\/a> economist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahbub_ul_Haq\">Mahbub ul Haq<\/a> developed the Human Development Index. He also founded the Human Development Report that same year.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microcredit\"><strong>Microcr <\/strong><\/a><strong> and <\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microfinance\"><strong>Microfinance<\/strong><\/a>: <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangladesh\">Bangladeshi<\/a> economist <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muhammad_Yunus\">Muhammad Yunus<\/a>, founder of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grameen_Bank\">Grameen Bank<\/a>, was the first to successfully apply the concept of microcr to the first microfinance banking system. In 2006, he and his bank received the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Peace_Prize\">Nobel Peace Prize<\/a> for their pioneering work on microcr and microfinance banking.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Notes<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<ol>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/baheyeldin.com\/literature\/arabic-and-islamic-themes-in-frank-herberts-dune.html\">Arabic and Islamic themes in Frank Herbert&#8217;s <em>Dune<\/em><\/a>&#8220;. <em>The Baheyeldin Dynasty<\/em>. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a> Herbert, Frank (1965). &#8220;Afterword: by Brian Herbert (2005)&#8221;, <em>Dune, 40th Anniversary ion (Dune Chronicles: Book 1)<\/em>. Ace Books, NY, 523\u2013525. <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0441013597\">ISBN 0-441-01359-7<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;To name one recent example, the political imbroglio involving T. E. Lawrence had profound messianic overtones. If Lawrence had been killed at a crucial point in the struggle, Herbert notes, he might well have become a new &#8220;avatar&#8221; for the Arabs. The Lawrence analogy suggested to Herbert the possibility for manipulation of the messianic impulses within a culture by outsiders with ulterior purposes. He also realized that ecology could become the focus of just such a messianic episode, here and now, in our own culture. &#8216;It might become the new banner for a deadly crusade&#8211;an excuse for a witch hunt or worse.&#8217;<br \/>\nHerbert pulled all these strands together in an early version of Dune. It was a story about a hero very like Lawrence of Arabia, an outsider who went native and used religious fervor to fuel his own ambitions&#8211;in this case, to transform the ecology of the planet.&#8221; pg 41, O&#8217;Reilly 1981 <em>ibid.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/moongadget.com\/origins\/dune.html\"><em>Star Wars<\/em> Origins: <em>Dune<\/em> &#8211; Moongadget.com<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a> Roberts, Adam. <em>Science Fiction<\/em>. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 85-90 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0415192048\">ISBN 0-415-19204-8<\/a><\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-BBC12May12_5-0\"><sup>6.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-BBC12May12_5-1\"><sup>6.1<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/magazine-17997163\">Kahlil Gibran&#8217;s The Prophet: Why is it so loved?<\/a>, BBC News, May 12, 2012, Retrieved May 12, 2012.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-NY-Jan-08_6-0\"><sup>7.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-NY-Jan-08_6-1\"><sup>7.1<\/sup><\/a> Acocella, Joan (January 7, 2008). <a href=\"http:\/\/www.newyorker.com\/arts\/critics\/books\/2008\/01\/07\/080107crbo_books_acocella\">&#8220;Prophet Motive&#8221;<\/a>. <em>The New Yorker<\/em>. Retrieved March 9, 2009.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-7\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.alhewar.com\/Gibran.html\">Alwehar.com<\/a>&#8220;. Alhewar.com (1995-12-03). Retrieved on 2012-12-22.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-8\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p00r49dp\">BBC World Service: The Man Behind the Prophet<\/a>&#8220;. Bbc.co.uk (2012-05-07). Retrieved on 2012-12-22.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-wire_2007_9-0\"><sup>10.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-wire_2007_9-1\"><sup>10.1<\/sup><\/a> Young, Rob (2007), <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/issues\/277\/?show=full\">&#8220;Once upon a time: in Cairo&#8221;<\/a>, <em>The Wire<\/em> <strong>277<\/strong> (March 2007): 24, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/issues\/277\/?show=full\">http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/issues\/277\/?show=full<\/a>, retrieved 2011-12-30.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-10\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#CITEREFHolmes2008\">Holmes 2008<\/a>, pp.\u00a0156\u201357.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#CITEREFHolmes2008\">Holmes 2008<\/a>, pp.\u00a0145\u201346.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.co.uk\/books?id=0WkJAQAAMAAJ\">&#8220;The RCA Synthesizer &amp; Its Synthesists&#8221;<\/a>, <em>Contemporary Keyboard<\/em> (GPI Publications) <strong>6<\/strong> (10): p.\u00a064, October 1980, <a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.co.uk\/books?id=0WkJAQAAMAAJ\">http:\/\/books.google.co.uk\/books?id=0WkJAQAAMAAJ<\/a>, retrieved 2011-06-05Template:Full<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-13\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#CITEREFHolmes2008\">Holmes 2008<\/a>, p.\u00a0153.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-14\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#CITEREFHolmes2008\">Holmes 2008<\/a>, pp.\u00a0153\u201354 &amp; 157.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-wire_1996_15-0\"><sup>16.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-wire_1996_15-1\"><sup>16.1<\/sup><\/a> David Toop (March 1996), <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/articles\/210\/\">&#8220;A-Z Of Electro&#8221;<\/a>, <em>The Wire<\/em> (145), <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/articles\/210\/\">http:\/\/www.thewire.co.uk\/articles\/210\/<\/a>, retrieved 2011-05-29<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-16\">\u2191<\/a> Kellman, A. (2007). <em>Hashim Biography<\/em>. All Media Guide. Retrieved September 6, 2007, from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.allmusic.com\/artist\/p84977\">[1]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a> Electro Empire. (2000). <em>Hashim interview<\/em>. ElectroEmpire Articles. Retrieved on September 5, 2007. from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.electroempire.com\/cgi-bin\/articles\/index.cgi?action=details&amp;ID=31\">[2]<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-18\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.allmusic.com\/album\/r2003688\">Kings of Electro<\/a> at AllMusic<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-19\">\u2191<\/a> R. Sabin, <em>Punk rock: so what?\u00a0: the cultural legacy of punk<\/em> (Routledge, 1999), p. 159.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a> Marcel Danesi, &#8220;Forever young: the teen-aging of modern culture&#8221; (University of Toronto Press, 2003), <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0802086209\">ISBN 0-8020-8620-9<\/a>, p.83.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-21\">\u2191<\/a> Toussaint, Godfried (August 2004), <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.mcgill.ca\/research\/reports\/2004\/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf\"><em>A Comparison of Rhythmic Similarity Measures<\/em><\/a>, 5th International Conference on Music Information, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.mcgill.ca\/research\/reports\/2004\/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf\">http:\/\/www.cs.mcgill.ca\/research\/reports\/2004\/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf<\/a>, retrieved 2009-07-06<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-last_fm_22-0\"><sup>23.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-last_fm_22-1\"><sup>23.1<\/sup><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.last.fm\/music\/Dick+Dale\">Dick Dale \u2013 Discover music, videos, concerts, stats, &amp; pictures at<\/a>&#8220;. Last.fm (2009-02-11). Retrieved on 2012-03-03.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-amg_dale_23-0\">\u2191<\/a> Huey, Steve. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.allmusic.com\/artist\/dick-dale-mn0000820232\">Dick Dale<\/a>&#8220;. Allmusic. Retrieved on 25 July 2012.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-24\">\u2191<\/a> Last Poets, Jason. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.allmusic.com\/artist\/p6947\">Inventions in the modern Islamic world<\/a> at AllMusic<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-25\">\u2191<\/a> Template:Cite video<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Activator_26-0\"><sup>27.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Activator_26-1\"><sup>27.1<\/sup><\/a> Horowitz, Ken (2004-08-03). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100206204922\/http:\/www.sega-16.com\/feature_page.php?id=85&amp;title=Genesis%20Accessory%20&amp;%20Peripheral%20Guide\">Top 10 Tuesday: Worst Game Controllers<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.sega-16.com\/\"><em>Sega-16<\/em><\/a>. Archived from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.sega-16.com\/feature_page.php?id=85&amp;title=Genesis%20Accessory%20&amp;%20Peripheral%20Guide\">the original<\/a> on 2010-02-06. Retrieved on 2010-12-04.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Do_You_Like...Mantronix.3F_27-0\">\u2191<\/a> Willey, Omar. &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20010628101405\/www.cheebadesign.com\/legends\/articleQ.html\">Do You Like&#8230;Mantronix?<\/a>&#8220;. cheebadesign.com. Retrieved on March 30, 2007.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-28\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#CITEREFFarmer1988\">Farmer 1988<\/a>, pp.\u00a072\u201382<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-29\">\u2191<\/a> Miller, Samuel D. (Autumn 1973), &#8220;Guido d&#8217;Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator&#8221;, <em>Journal of Research in Music Education<\/em> <strong>21<\/strong> (3): 239\u201345, Error: Bad DOI specified, JSTOR\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3345093\">3345093<\/a><\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-washfile_30-0\"><sup>31.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-washfile_30-1\"><sup>31.1<\/sup><\/a> Holgate, Steve (14 September 2006). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080225163822\/http:\/www.america.gov\/st\/washfile-english\/2006\/September\/20060914165844ndyblehs0.0821802.html\">Guitarist Dick Dale Brought Arabic Folk Song to Surf Music<\/a>&#8220;. <em>The Washington File<\/em>. Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. Archived from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.america.gov\/st\/washfile-english\/2006\/September\/20060914165844ndyblehs0.0821802.html\">the original<\/a> on 25 February 2008. Retrieved on 29 August 2010.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-amg_izitso_31-0\">\u2191<\/a> Ruhlmann, William. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.allmusic.com\/album\/izitso-r19012\">Review<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Izitso<\/em>. Allmusic. Retrieved on 20 May 2012.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-discogs_izitso_32-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.discogs.com\/Cat-Stevens-Izitso\/release\/1119030\">Cat Stevens \u2013 Izitso<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Island Records<\/em>. Discogs. Retrieved on 20 May 2012.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-discogs_izitso2_33-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.discogs.com\/Cat-Stevens-Izitso\/release\/493125\">Cat Stevens \u2013 Izitso<\/a>&#8220;. <em>A&amp;M Records<\/em>. Discogs. Retrieved on 20 May 2012.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-pubDCT_34-0\">\u2191<\/a> Ahmed, Nasir; Natarajan, T.; Rao, K. R. (January 1974), &#8220;Discrete Cosine Transform&#8221;, <em>IEEE Transactions on Computers<\/em> <strong>C-23<\/strong> (1): 90\u201393, Error: Bad DOI specified<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-35\">\u2191<\/a> N. Ahmed,. &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/doc\/52879771\/DCT-History\">How I Came Up With the Discrete Cosine Transform<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Digital Signal Processing<\/em>, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, 1991, pp. 4-5.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-36\">\u2191<\/a> International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27\u201329 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-37\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;A reversible graphite-lithium negative electrode for electrochemical generators&#8221; (1983). <em>Journal of Power Sources<\/em> <strong>9<\/strong> (3): 365\u2013371. doi:<a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F0378-7753%2883%2987040-2\">10.1016\/0378-7753(83)87040-2<\/a>. Bibcode:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1983JPS.....9..365Y\">1983JPS&#8230;..9..365Y<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-38\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.invent.org\/inductees\/martin-john-m-atalla\">https:\/\/www.invent.org\/inductees\/martin-john-m-atalla<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-39\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.computerhistory.org\/atchm\/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history\/\">https:\/\/www.computerhistory.org\/atchm\/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history\/<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-theregisterJanuary2006_40-0\">\u2191<\/a> Leyden, John (January 19, 2006). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2006\/01\/19\/pc_virus_at_20\/\">PC virus celebrates 20th birthday<\/a>&#8220;. <em>The Register<\/em>. Retrieved on March 21, 2011.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-41\">\u2191<\/a> Mat Honan &#8211; [[[:Template:Reference archive]] Why Hackers Write Computer Viruses] &#8211; Gizmodo, August 4, 2011<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-42\">\u2191<\/a> [[[:Template:Reference archive]] Mikko Hypponen: Fighting viruses, defending the net] &#8211; TED, July 2011<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-cohen_43-0\">\u2191<\/a> Cohen, Adam (2003). <em>The Perfect Store<\/em>. Boston: Back Bay Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0316164933\">ISBN 0-316-16493-3<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-guidetofps_44-0\"><sup>45.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-guidetofps_44-1\"><sup>45.1<\/sup><\/a> Hasselberger, Cheese, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ugo.com\/channels\/games\/features\/firstpersonshooter\/firstshotfired.asp\">Guide to FPS<\/a>, <em>UGO,<\/em> Accessed February 16, 2009<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-ops_cry_45-0\"><sup>46.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-ops_cry_45-1\"><sup>46.1<\/sup><\/a> Hurley, Leon, &#8220;Far Cry 2&#8221;, <em>PlayStation Official Magazine UK<\/em>, December 2008 (issue 25), pp. 98-100<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-nextgen_46-0\">\u2191<\/a> (February 1999). &#8220;Hironobu Sakaguchi: The Man Behind the Fantasies&#8221;. <em>Next Generation Magazine<\/em>, vol 50.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-WorldRunner_47-0\"><sup>48.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-WorldRunner_47-1\"><sup>48.1<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/allgame.com\/game.php?id=1136\">3-D WorldRunner<\/a> at Allgame<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Moby_48-0\">\u2191<\/a> John Romero, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mobygames.com\/developer\/sheet\/view\/developerId,82501\/\">Nasir Gebelli<\/a> at MobyGames<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-mobyoleg_170_49-0\">\u2191<\/a> Roschin, Oleg (March 26, 2006). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.mobygames.com\/featured_article\/feature,25\">The World of Asian RPGs<\/a>&#8220;. MobyGames. Retrieved on 2009-09-10.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-RPGFan-Romancing-Saga_50-0\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rpgfan.com\/reviews\/romancingsagaminstrel\/index.html\">Romancing SaGa<\/a>, RPG Fan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-51\">\u2191<\/a> Francesca Reyes (November 4, 1999). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/psx.ign.com\/articles\/162\/162007p1.html\">Grandia<\/a>&#8220;. IGN. Retrieved on 2011-03-02.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-52\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.eurogamer.net\/articles\/no-experience-levelling-in-ffxiv\">No experience, levelling in FFXIV<\/a>, <em>EuroGamer<\/em><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-53\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thunderboltgames.com\/reviews\/article\/secret-of-mana-review-for-snes.html\">Secret of Mana<\/a>, Thunderbolt<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-54\">\u2191<\/a> John Romero, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mobygames.com\/game\/horizon-v\">Horizon V<\/a> at MobyGames<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-55\">\u2191<\/a> John Romero, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mobygames.com\/game\/zenith\">Zenith<\/a> at MobyGames<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-56\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4Me1ycLxDlw\">Nasir Gebelli at Apple II Reunion<\/a> on YouTube<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-FF3jobs_57-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/na.square-enix.com\/ff3\/\">Final Fantasy Iii<\/a>&#8220;. Na.square-enix.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-13.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-square_ffmanual_58-0\">\u2191<\/a> (1999) in Square Enix Co.: <em>Final Fantasy Anthology North American instruction manual<\/em>. Square Enix Co., 17\u201318. SLUS-00879GH.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-FFII_59-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gametrailers.com\/player\/22650.html\">Final Fantasy Retrospective: Part II<\/a>&#8220;. GameTrailers (2007-07-23). Retrieved on 2008-04-16.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-60\">\u2191<\/a> Template:Cite video<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-gspot_finalfhist_b_61-0\">\u2191<\/a> Vestal, Andrew (1998-11-02). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gamespot.com\/features\/vgs\/universal\/finalfantasy_hs\/sec1.html\">The History of Final Fantasy<\/a>&#8220;. GameSpot. Retrieved on 2009-09-11.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-GSpot-Papyrus_62-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gamespot.com\/features\/6103365\/p-2.html\">The History of Papyrus Racing &#8211; Page 2<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Gamespot<\/em>. Retrieved on 2008-04-07.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-63\">\u2191<\/a> Quoted in Bernard Lewis, <em>Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire<\/em>, University of Oklahoma Press (reprint, 1989), <a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7FQRrbUMojcC&amp;pg=PA132&amp;dq=Pechevi+coffeehouses+Constantinople&amp;ei=cLNiSrzFA4OgzASj6cS0DQ\">p.\u00a0132 Google Books<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/9780806110608\">ISBN 978-0-8061-1060-8<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-64\">\u2191<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.tomstandage.com\/6G.html\">http:\/\/www.tomstandage.com\/6G.html<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-65\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.superluminal.com\/cookbook\/essay_coffee.html\">Coffee &#8211; The Wine of Islam<\/a>&#8220;. Superluminal.com. Retrieved on 2011-05-29.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-66\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.historicfood.com\/Ice%20Cream%20Cone.htm\">Robin Weir&#8217;s Ice Cream Cone Essay<\/a>&#8220;. Historicfood.com (2004). Retrieved on 2009-01-04.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-67\">\u2191<\/a> Stradley, Linda (2004). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/whatscookingamerica.net\/History\/IceCream\/IceCreamCone.htm\">Ice Cream Cone, History of Ice Cream Cone<\/a>&#8220;. Whatscookingamerica.net. Retrieved on 2009-01-04.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-68\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.credoreference.com\/entry\/rutgersnj\/ice_cream\">Ice cream<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Encyclopedia of New Jersey<\/em> (2004).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Topdemir_69-0\">\u2191<\/a> Topdemir, H\u00fcseyin Gazi (1999), <em>Tak\u00eey\u00fcdd\u00een&#8217;in Optik Kitabi<\/em>, Ministry of Culture Press, Ankara (cf. Dr. H\u00fcseyin Gazi Topdemir (30 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=951\">Taqi al-Din ibn Ma\u2018ruf and the Science of Optics: The Nature of Light and the Mechanism of Vision<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC Limited. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-70\">\u2191<\/a> Salim Al-Hassani (19 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=947\">The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC. Retrieved on 2008-07-02.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hassani_71-0\"><sup>72.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hassani_71-1\"><sup>72.1<\/sup><\/a> Salim Al-Hassani (19 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=947\">The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC. Retrieved on 2008-07-02.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hill_72-0\">\u2191<\/a> Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y Hassan. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.history-science-technology.com\/Articles\/articles%2011.htm\">Engineering in Arabic-Islamic Civilization<\/a>&#8220;. <em>History of Science and Technology in Islam<\/em>. Retrieved on 2008-07-03.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-73\">\u2191<\/a> Sevim Tekeli, &#8220;Taqi al-Din&#8221;, in Helaine Selin (1997), <em>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures<\/em>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0792340663\">ISBN 0-7923-4066-3<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-74\">\u2191<\/a> Sayili, Aydin (1991), <em>The Observatory in Islam<\/em>, pp.\u00a0289\u2013305 (cf. Dr. Salim Ayduz (26 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=949\">Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma\u2019ruf: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.)<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-idiots_75-0\"><sup>76.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-idiots_75-1\"><sup>76.1<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/archive.mid-day.com\/news\/2009\/dec\/281209-3-idiots-scooter-flour-mill-Inventions-Pune.htm\">http:\/\/archive.mid-day.com\/news\/2009\/dec\/281209-3-idiots-scooter-flour-mill-Inventions-Pune.htm<\/a><\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Terzioglu_76-0\"><sup>77.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Terzioglu_76-1\"><sup>77.1<\/sup><\/a> Arslan Terzioglu (2007), &#8220;The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History&#8221;, in <em>The Turks<\/em> (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-77\">\u2191<\/a> Winter, Frank H. (1992). &#8220;Who First Flew in a Rocket?&#8221;, <em>Journal of the British Interplanetary Society<\/em> <strong>45<\/strong> (July 1992), pp. 275-80.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-78\">\u2191<\/a> Winter, Frank H. (1992). &#8220;Who First Flew in a Rocket?&#8221;, <em>Journal of the British Interplanetary Society<\/em> <strong>45<\/strong> (July 1992), pp. 275-80.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-rapid_79-0\">\u2191<\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/publications\/Publications\/novel-coronavirus-rapid-risk-assessment-update.pdf\">ECDC Rapid Risk Assessment &#8211; Severe respiratory disease associated with a novel coronavirus<\/a>&#8221; (19 Feb 2013). Retrieved on 22 Apr 2014.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-zaki8nov2012_80-0\">\u2191<\/a> Ali Mohamed Zaki (8 November 2012). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.virology-bonn.de\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/_temp_\/Zaki_et_al.pdf\">Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia<\/a>&#8221; (PDF). <em>New England Journal of Medicine<\/em> <strong>367<\/strong> (19). doi:<a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1056%2FNEJMoa1211721\">10.1056\/NEJMoa1211721<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-thechart.blogs_81-0\"><sup>82.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-thechart.blogs_81-1\"><sup>82.1<\/sup><\/a> Falco, Miriam (24 September 2012). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/thechart.blogs.cnn.com\/2012\/09\/24\/new-sars-like-virus-poses-medical-mystery\/\">New SARS-like virus poses medical mystery<\/a>&#8220;, CNN. Retrieved on 27 September 2012.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-82\">\u2191<\/a> Dziadosz, Alexander (13 May 2013). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/2013\/05\/13\/us-coronavirus-egypt-idUSBRE94C0MH20130513\">The doctor who discovered a new SARS-like virus says it will probably trigger an epidemic at some point, but not necessarily in its current form .<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 25 May 2013.<\/li>\n<li>\u2191 <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-promedmail.org_83-0\"><sup>84.0<\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-promedmail.org_83-1\"><sup>84.1<\/sup><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.promedmail.org\/direct.php?id=20120920.1302733\">See Also<\/a>&#8220;. ProMED-mail (2012-09-20). Retrieved on 2013-05-31.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-McFadden_and_Al-Khalili_84-0\">\u2191<\/a> McFadden J. J. and Al-Khalili, J. V. (1999). <a href=\"http:\/\/www.surrey.ac.uk\/qe\/pdfs\/mcfadden_and_al-khalili.pdf?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T2K-3WHKRCP-4&amp;_coverDate=06\/30\/1999&amp;_alid=8659908&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=summary&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=4921&amp;_sort=d&amp;_acct=C000009958&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=121707&amp;md5=7af163b1fd912ea4034c94d41561bc4f\">A quantum mechanical model of adaptive mutation.<\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/xyz.lanl.gov\/abs\/q-bio.OT\/0701050\">[3]<\/a> <em>Biosystems<\/em> <strong>50<\/strong>, 203-211<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-McFadden_85-0\">\u2191<\/a> McFadden, Johnjoe (2000). <a href=\"http:\/\/www.surrey.ac.uk\/qe\/quantumevolution.htm\"><em>Quantum Evolution<\/em>.<\/a> HarperCollins. <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/000255948X\">ISBN 0-00-255948-X<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0006551289\">ISBN 0-00-655128-9<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Afshar2005_86-0\">\u2191<\/a> S. S. Afshar (2005). &#8220;Violation of the principle of complementarity, and its implications&#8221;. <em>Proceedings of SPIE<\/em> <strong>5866<\/strong>: 229\u2013244. doi:<a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1117%2F12.638774\">10.1117\/12.638774<\/a>. Bibcode:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2005SPIE.5866..229A\">2005SPIE.5866..229A<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span>References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h1>\n<ol>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Lewis\">Bernard Lewis<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/What_Went_Wrong\"><em>What Went Wrong<\/em><\/a>:<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>&#8220;There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East\u2014<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_Egypt\">Egypt<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babylon\">Babylon<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persia\">Persia<\/a>; to the great civilizations of Asia\u2014<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_India\">India<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_China\">China<\/a>; and to the civilizations of <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-Columbian\">Pre-Columbian America<\/a>. There are two exceptions: <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christendom\">Christendom<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islam\">Islam<\/a>. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary.&#8221;<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Emporis_1-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Emporis_1-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.emporis.com\/en\/wm\/bu\/?id=116876\">John Hancock Center<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emporis\">Emporis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-UNESCO_2-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/whc.unesco.org\/en\/list\/192\">Old Walled City of Shibam<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UNESCO\">UNESCO<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Helfritz_3-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Helfritz, Hans (April 1937), &#8220;Land without shade&#8221;, <em>Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society<\/em> <strong>24<\/strong> (2): 201\u201316<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Jerome_4-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Jerome_4-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Pamela Jerome, Giacomo Chiari, Caterina Borelli (1999), &#8220;The Architecture of Mud: Construction and Repair Technology in the Hadhramaut Region of Yemen&#8221;, <em>APT Bulletin<\/em> <strong>30<\/strong> (2-3): 39\u201348 [44], <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.2307%2F1504639\">10.2307\/1504639<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Shipman_5-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Shipman, J. G. T. (June 1984), &#8220;The Hadhramaut&#8221;, <em>Asian Affairs<\/em> <strong>15<\/strong> (2): 154\u201362, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080%2F03068378408730145\">10.1080\/03068378408730145<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-6\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Irfan Habib (1992), &#8220;Akbar and Technology&#8221;, <em>Social Scientist<\/em> <strong>20<\/strong> (9-10), pp. 3-15 [3-4].<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-7\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Mortada, Hisham (2003), <em>Traditional Islamic principles of built environment<\/em>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Routledge\">Routledge<\/a>, p. viii, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0700717005\">ISBN 0700717005<\/a><\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Banglapedia_8-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Banglapedia_8-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Banglapedia_8-2\"><strong><em><sup>c<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/banglapedia.search.com.bd\/HT\/K_0187.htm\">Khan, Fazlur Rahman<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banglapedia\"><em>Banglapedia<\/em><\/a>. Retrieved on 2008-12-09.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-9\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Ali Mir (2001). <em>Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan<\/em>. Rizzoli International Publications. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0847823709\">ISBN 0847823709<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-10\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.visitdubai.info\/news\/burjdubai.htm\">Burj Dubai surpasses the height of Sears Tower in Chicago<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-11\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/news\/worldnews\/middleeast\/dubai\/2191592\/World%27s-first-rotating-skyscraper-unveiled-in-Dubai.html\">World&#8217;s first rotating skyscraper unveiled in Dubai<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Daily_Telegraph\">The Daily Telegraph<\/a> (26 June 2008). Retrieved on 2008-09-04.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-12\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au\/ejse\/Archives\/Fulltext\/200101\/01\/20010101.htm\">Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 2007-05-14.<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Ali_13-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Ali_13-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Ali, Mir M. (2001), &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.ejse.org\/Archives\/Fulltext\/200101\/01\/20010101.htm\">Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers: from Ingalls to Jin mao<\/a>&#8220;, <em>Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering<\/em> <strong>1<\/strong> (1): 2-14,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.ejse.org\/Archives\/Fulltext\/200101\/01\/20010101.htm\">http:\/\/www.ejse.org\/Archives\/Fulltext\/200101\/01\/20010101.htm<\/a>, retrieved on 30 November 2008<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Swenson_14-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Swenson_14-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Alfred Swenson &amp; Pao-Chi Chang (2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/83859\/building-construction\">building construction<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica\"><em>Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/em><\/a>. Retrieved on 2008-12-09.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-15\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/316259\/Fazlur-R-Khan\">Fazlur R. Khan<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica\"><em>Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/em><\/a> (2008). Retrieved on 2008-12-10.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Karim_16-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.jawed.com\/resume\">Jawed Karim Resume<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-17\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Omair Ali, Ani Zakarian, Valerie Enriquez. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.theculturalconnect.com\/new\/2007\/08\/10\/mecca-one-radio-mideast\">MeccaOne Media: A Voice for the Everyday Muslim<\/a>&#8220;. <em>The MidEast Connect Magazine<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-18\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Jim Hopkins, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.usatoday.com\/tech\/news\/2006-10-11-youtube-karim_x.htm\">Surprise! There&#8217;s a third YouTube co-founder<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USA_Today\"><em>USA Today<\/em><\/a>, 10-11-2006.<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-book_19-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-book_19-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Lloyd_(writer)\">Lloyd, J<\/a> &amp; <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Mitchinson\">Mitchinson, J<\/a>: &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Book_of_General_Ignorance\">The Book of General Ignorance<\/a>&#8220;. Faber &amp; Faber, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Guardian_20-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.guardian.co.uk\/uk\/2002\/jun\/21\/religion.bangladesh\">From Bangladesh to Brick Lane<\/a>&#8220;. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2002-07-21.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-bbcenc_21-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> BBC E-Cyclopedia. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/special_report\/1999\/02\/99\/e-cyclopedia\/1285804.stm\">Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/bbc.co.uk\/\"><em>bbc.co.uk<\/em><\/a>. Retrieved on 28 September, 2007.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Vallely_22-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Paul Vallely, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/findarticles.com\/p\/articles\/mi_qn4158\/is_20060311\/ai_n16147544\">How Islamic Inventors Changed the World<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Independent\"><em>The Independent<\/em><\/a>, 11 March 2006<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Reflections_23-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> David A. King, &#8220;Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)&#8221;, <em>Islam &amp; Science<\/em>, June 2004.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-24\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> David A. King (1997). &#8220;Two Iranian World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca&#8221;, <em>Imago Mundi<\/em> <strong>49<\/strong>, p. 62-82 [62].<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-25\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Muzaffar Iqbal, &#8220;David A. King, <em>World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science<\/em>&#8220;, <em>Islam &amp; Science<\/em>, June 2003.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Tekeli_26-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Tekeli, Sevim (1997). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.springer.com\/philosophy\/philosophy+of+sciences\/book\/978-1-4020-4425-0\">Taqi al-Din<\/a>&#8220;. <em>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures<\/em>. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers\">Kluwer Academic Publishers<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Topdemir_27-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Topdemir, H\u00fcseyin Gazi (1999), <em>Tak\u00eey\u00fcdd\u00een&#8217;in Optik Kitabi<\/em>, Ministry of Culture Press, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ankara\">Ankara<\/a> (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cf.\">cf.<\/a> Dr. H\u00fcseyin Gazi Topdemir (30 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=951\">Taqi al-Din ibn Ma\u2018ruf and the Science of Optics: The Nature of Light and the Mechanism of Vision<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC Limited. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-28\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), <em>Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use<\/em>, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-29\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari (2004), <em>Journal of Power Sources<\/em> <strong>132<\/strong> (1-2): 240\u201343<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-30\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.turkpatent.gov.tr\/portal\/default_en.jsp?sayfa=161&amp;haber=360\">Turkish Inventions Won Awards from the IENA Invention Fair<\/a>&#8220;. Turkish Patent Institute (2006-11-10). Retrieved on 2008-08-09.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-31\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.radikal.com.tr\/haber.php?haberno=183987&amp;tarih=10\/04\/2006\">\u00d6d\u00fcll\u00fc far yollarda<\/a>&#8220;, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radikal\">Radikal<\/a> (2006-04-10). Retrieved on 15 January 2008.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-32\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_Routledge_Hill\">Donald Routledge Hill<\/a>, &#8220;Engineering&#8221;, p. 779, in (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;CITEREFRashedMorelon1996\">Rashed &amp; Morelon 1996<\/a>, pp. 751-95)<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Taqi_33-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Taqi_33-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ahmad_Y_Hassan\">Ahmad Y Hassan<\/a> (1976), <em>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering<\/em>, p. 34-35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Aleppo\">University of Aleppo<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-34\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.turkpatent.gov.tr\/portal\/default_en.jsp?sayfa=161&amp;haber=540\">Turkish Inventions Exhibits in Iena Fair<\/a>&#8220;. Turkish Patent Institute (2007-10-30). Retrieved on 2008-08-09.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-35\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salim_Al-Hassani\">Salim Al-Hassani<\/a> (19 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=947\">The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC. Retrieved on 2008-07-02.<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hassani_36-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hassani_36-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salim_Al-Hassani\">Salim Al-Hassani<\/a> (19 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=947\">The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction<\/a>&#8220;. FSTC. Retrieved on 2008-07-02.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Hill_37-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_Routledge_Hill\">Donald Routledge Hill<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ahmad_Y_Hassan\">Ahmad Y Hassan<\/a>. &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.history-science-technology.com\/Articles\/articles%2011.htm\">Engineering in Arabic-Islamic Civilization<\/a>&#8220;. <em>History of Science and Technology in Islam<\/em>. Retrieved on 2008-07-03.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-38\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Sevim Tekeli, &#8220;Taqi al-Din&#8221;, in Helaine Selin (1997), <em>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures<\/em>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers\">Kluwer Academic Publishers<\/a>,<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0792340663\">ISBN 0792340663<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-39\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aydin_Sayili\">Sayili, Aydin<\/a> (1991), <em>The Observatory in Islam<\/em>, pp. 289\u2013305 (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cf.\">cf.<\/a> Dr. Salim Ayduz (26 June 2008). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/muslimheritage.com\/topics\/default.cfm?ArticleID=949\">Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma\u2019ruf: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-40\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. K. Bag (2005), &#8220;Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu&#8221;, <em>Indian Journal of History of Science<\/em> <strong>40<\/strong> (3), pp. 431-436.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-41\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Roddam Narasimha (1985). <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/nal-ir.nal.res.in\/2382\/01\/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf\">Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D.<\/a> National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-r.26ms_42-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclopedia_Britannica\"><em>Encyclopedia Britannica<\/em><\/a> (2008), &#8220;rocket and missile&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-43\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), &#8220;The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries&#8221;, <em>Early Music<\/em> (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\">Oxford University Press<\/a>) <strong>34<\/strong> (4): 533\u201360, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fem%2Fcal103\">10.1093\/em\/cal103<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-44\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/914879\/Kerim-Kerimov\">&#8220;Kerim Kerimov&#8221;<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica\"><em>Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/em><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/914879\/Kerim-Kerimov\">http:\/\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/914879\/Kerim-Kerimov<\/a>, retrieved on 12 October 2008<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Bond_45-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Bond_45-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Peter Bond, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/findarticles.com\/p\/articles\/mi_qn4158\/is_20030407\/ai_n12692130\">Obituary: Lt-Gen Kerim Kerimov<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Independent\"><em>The Independent<\/em><\/a>, 7 April 2003.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-46\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Betty Blair (1995), &#8220;Behind Soviet Aeronauts&#8221;, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azerbaijan_International\"><em>Azerbaijan International<\/em><\/a> <strong>3<\/strong> (3).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-47\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.islamonline.net\/servlet\/Satellite?c=Article_C&amp;cid=1169545087624&amp;pagename=Zone-English-HealthScience%2FHSELayout\">Farouk El-Baz: With Apollo to the Moon<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IslamOnline\">IslamOnline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-48\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> theStar (2007). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/thestar.com.my\/news\/story.asp?file=\/2007\/10\/11\/nation\/19136025&amp;sec=nation\">Mission in space<\/a>&#8221; (in English).<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Terzioglu_49-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Terzioglu_49-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Terzioglu_49-2\"><strong><em><sup>c<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tosun_Terzio%C4%9Flu\">Arslan Terzioglu<\/a> (2007), &#8220;The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History&#8221;, in <em>The Turks<\/em> (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810 <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.muslimheritage.com\/uploads\/Rocket_Technology_in_Turkish_history1.pdf\">[1<\/a>]<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-50\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.designnobis.com\/\">DesignNobis<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 2008-08-09.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Bruxelles_51-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Simon de Bruxelles (28 February 2007). &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/africa\/article1449736.ece\">Pirates who got away with it by sailing closer to the wind<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Times\"><em>The Times<\/em><\/a>. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-52\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world&quot; \\l &quot;CITEREFRazavi1997\">Razavi 1997<\/a>, pp. 129-30)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-53\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Kamal, Muhammad (2006), <em>Mulla Sadra&#8217;s Transcendent Philosophy<\/em>, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., pp. 9 &amp; 39, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/0754652718\">ISBN 0754652718<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-WhoNamedIt_54-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.whonamedit.com\/synd.cfm\/1863.html\"><em>synd\/1863<\/em><\/a> at <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Who_Named_It\">Who Named It<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-55\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> H. Beh\u00e7et. \u00dcber rezidivierende, apht\u00f6se, durch ein Virus verursachte Geschw\u00fcre am Mund, am Auge und an den Genitalien. Dermatologische Wochenschrift, Hamburg, 1937, 105(36): 1152-1163.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-56\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.healthgrades.com\/directory_search\/physician\/profiles\/dr-md-reports\/Dr-Muhammad-Yunus-MD-044503D8.cfm\">Dr. Muhammad Yunus, MD<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=HealthGrades,_Inc&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">HealthGrades, Inc<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-57\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2007\/06\/070625095756.htm\">Further Legitimization Of Fibromyalgia As A True Medical Condition<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_Daily\"><em>Science Daily<\/em><\/a>, June 25, 2007.<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Winfield_58-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Winfield_58-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> John B. Winfield (2007), &#8220;Fibromyalgia and Related Central Sensitivity Syndromes: Twenty-five Years of Progress&#8221;, <em>Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism<\/em> <strong>36<\/strong> (6): 335-338.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-59\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> F. Fatma Inanici and Muhammad B. Yunus (2004), &#8220;History of fibromyalgia: Past to present&#8221;, <strong>8<\/strong> (5): 369-378.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-60\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Rahbar S, Blumenfeld O, Ranney HM (1969). &#8220;Studies of an unusual hemoglobin in patients with diabetes mellitus&#8221;. <em>Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.<\/em> <strong>36<\/strong> (5): 838\u201343.<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F0006-291X%2869%2990685-8\">10.1016\/0006-291X(69)90685-8<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/5808299\">PMID 5808299<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-61\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Gregory D. Johnsen, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.jamestown.org\/terrorism\/news\/article.php?articleid=2369951\">Profile of Sheikh Abd al-Majid al-Zindani<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-62\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Yemenite\">Sheik Claims to Have Found the Cure for AIDS Video<\/a> at <a href=\"http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\">YouTube<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-63\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.ottawaheart.ca\/UOHI\/bio\/Tofy_Mussivand.jsp\">Tofy Mussivand PhD, FRSC<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Ottawa_Heart_Institute\">University of Ottawa Heart Institute<\/a><\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Ravi_64-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Ravi_64-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Ravi Malhotra (2004), &#8220;Saudi Arabia&#8221;, <em>Practical Neurology<\/em> <strong>4<\/strong>: 184-185.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-65\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> S. Saleem (2005), <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.neurographics.org\/4\/2\/1\/4.shtml\">Neuro-Behcet&#8217;s Disease: NBD<\/a>, <em>Neurographics<\/em>, Vol. 4, Issue 2, Article 1.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-66\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2008\/10\/081010173054.htm\">&#8216;Virgin Birth&#8217; By Shark Confirmed: Second Case Ever<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_Daily\">Science Daily<\/a> (October 11, 2008). Retrieved on 2008-10-12.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-67\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Mahmoud S. Shivji, D. D. Chapman, B. Firchau (2008), &#8220;Parthenogenesis in a large-bodied requiem shark, the blacktip Carcharhinus limbatus&#8221;, <em>Journal of Fish Biology<\/em> <strong>73<\/strong> (6): 1473\u20137, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8649.2008.02018.x\">10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2008.02018.x<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Eftekhari_68-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Ali Eftekhari (2006) Fractal geometry of texts. <em>Journal of Quantitative Linguistic<\/em> 13(2-3): 177 \u2013 193.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-69\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Lauren Caston and Rita Fioresi (October 30, 2007). &#8220;[2008-09-10 Mathematical Foundations of Supersymmetry]&#8221;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\">arXiv<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-70\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> H\u00e9lein, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric (2008), &#8220;A representation formula for maps on supermanifolds&#8221;, <em>Journal of Mathematical Physics<\/em> <strong>49<\/strong> (023506): 1 &amp; 19, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1063%2F1.2840464\">10.1063\/1.2840464<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-71\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> Ugo Bruzzo and Vladimir Pestov (February 1, 2008). &#8220;[2008-09-10 What is Supertopology?]&#8221;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\">arXiv<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-72\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.kerimkerimov.az\/\">Kerim Kerimov Mammadhan<\/a>&#8220;. Retrieved on 2008-10-18.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-73\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/v3.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&amp;IDX=WO2004057374\">WO patent 2004057374<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-74\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.wiley-vch.de\/publish\/en\/books\/bySubjectMS00\/ISBN3-527-31876-3\/?sID=b769201ff074e79e9824491197364440\">Nanostructured Materials in Electrochemistry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-75\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, et al, <em>Carbon<\/em>, 2006, 44 (7), 1343 \u2013 1345.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-76\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, et al, <em>Chemistry Letters<\/em>, 2006, 35 (1), 138 \u2013 139.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-77\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, <em>Journal of the Electrochemical Society<\/em>, 2004, 151 (9), E291 \u2013 E296<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-78\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> M. Akhtar (1996), Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, <em>Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society<\/em>, Vol. 42, November, pp. 400-417<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-79\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, <em>Electrochimica Acta<\/em>, 2003, 48 (19), 2831 \u2013 2839<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-80\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, et al, <em>Applied Surface Sciencs<\/em>, 2005, 239 (3), 311 \u2013 319<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-81\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, <em>Surface Review and Letters<\/em>, 2006, 13 (5), 703 \u2013 710<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-82\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, <em>Physica B<\/em>, 2007, 387 (1-2), 92 \u2013 97<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-83\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Eftekhari, et al, <em>Surface Review and Letters<\/em>, 2006, 13 (6), 753 \u2013 758<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-84\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> A. Salam (1966). &#8220;Magnetic monopole and two photon theories of C-violation&#8221;. <em>Physics Letters<\/em> <strong>22<\/strong>: 683\u2013684. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F0031-9163%2866%2990704-9\">10.1016\/0031-9163(66)90704-9<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-85\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> &#8220;<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/www.nobel.se\/physics\/laureates\/1979\">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979<\/a>&#8220;. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nobel_Foundation\">Nobel Foundation<\/a>. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-86\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abdus_Salam\">Abdus Salam<\/a> &amp; <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jogesh_Pati\">Jogesh Pati<\/a> (1974), <em>Phys. Rev.<\/em> <strong>D10<\/strong>: 275<\/li>\n<li>^ <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Burgan_87-0\"><strong><em><sup>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-Burgan_87-1\"><strong><em><sup>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a> Burgan, Michael (2008), <em>Muhammad Ali: American Champion<\/em>, Capstone Press, p. <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/1429601531\">ISBN 1429601531<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-saqlain_ireland_88-0\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/content-uk.cricinfo.com\/ci\/content\/story\/236908.html\">Saqlain signs for Ireland<\/a>: <strong>Cricinfo.com<\/strong> Retrieved 26 April 2007.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_ref-89\"><strong>^<\/strong><\/a> <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/news.bbc.co.uk\/sport2\/hi\/cricket\/england\/4155734.stm\">Cricket &#8211; England &#8211; What is reverse swing?<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081217031520\/http:\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC_Sport\"><em>BBC Sport<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>SOURCE: https:\/\/islam.wikia.org\/wiki\/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world This is a list of inventions that were developed in the modern Islamic world, a geopolitical region that extends from Africa and the Balkans in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Malay Archipelago in the east.[1] The inventions listed here were developed after the Islamic Golden Age, which is usually dated between &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[77,588],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-8084","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-rebuttals","category-rebuttals-general"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.9 - 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